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en 



Flying Machines: 

PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE. 

A Popular Account of Flying Machines, Dirigible 
Balloons and Aeroplanes . 

BY 

ALFRED W. MARSHALL, M.I.Mech.E. 

AND 

HENRY GREENLY. 
FULLY ILLUSTRATED. 



NEW YORK: 
SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 123-125 Liberty St. 



CONTENTS. 



ifd 7 



Preface v.. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Introduction 7 

II. Dirigible Balloons 25 

III. Flying Machines 58 

IV. The Art of Flying 103 

V. Flying Machines of the Future ... Ill 



PEBFACE. 



Whilst the matter contained in this book is 
intended as a popular exposition of the subject it 
includes information which may assist the reader 
with serious intention of making an attempt to 
produce a flying machine, or airship. A great 
deal of sound experimental work has been done 
by many investigators forming a basis upon 
which future plans can be calculated. An ac- 
count of some of this work is given in these pages, 
and though necessarily incomplete will give an 
idea of what has been accomplished and that 
which may be possible. Further sources of 
information are indicated so that the reader may 
extend his search if he desires to do so. It has 
not been considered advisable to include mathe- 
matical formulae or to attempt calculations for 
designs as these are beyond the scope of the book. 
Flying machines of the past are taken to be the 
models and machines used by experimenters of 
intelligence and scientific ability. No account is 
taken of the grotesque or mythical aerial 
machines which, though placed on record in 
various publications, have probably only existed in 



VI. PBEFACE. 

imagination or upon paper. Flying machines of 
the present are taken to be those which have been 
constructed and tried within the last two or three 
years. As regards flying machines of the future, 
the reader is left to picture these for himself with 
the assistance of Chapter V. 

In mentioning certain experimenters it is 
recognised that others have done excellent work 
also. Eeaders who will consult the pages of 
Engineering , the E?icyclopcedia Britannica (sub- 
ject " /Eronautics "), " Progress in Flying Ma- 
chines" by Chanute, " Navigation Arienne" by 
Lecornu, "Ariation depuis, 1891," by Ferber, 
etc., will find mention of various experimenters 
and their work with extended information upon 
aerial navigation and machines. These sources 
have been consulted in the preparation of this 
volume, and to them the authors extend their 
grateful acknowledgments. They also wish to 
pay a tribute of respect to the brave pioneers 
who have sacrificed their lives in endeavouring 
to advance the art of mechanical flight. 



CHAPTEE I. 



Introduction. 



A T the present day the fascinating problem 
'**■ how to make a successful flying machine is 
attracting attention in all civilised countries. A 
valuable prize has actually been won in France 
by a navigable airship which has been propelled 
over a given course, starting from a definite locality 
and returning to the same place in a limited period 
of time. The custom of regarding any attempt 
to navigate the air as an indication of madness on 
the part of the experimenter has passed away, and 
is now replaced by a feeling of anxiety that one's 
own country shall not be forestalled in the art of 
ariation. Sir Hiram Maxim, the well-known 
engineer and inventor, has stated years ago that 
one half of the leading scientists in the United 
States are of the opinion that mechanical flight 
is possible. 

The subject is attractive because of the large 
amount of chance or luck which exists in respect 
to it. There is no industry manufacturing air- 
ships as a commercial article ; no one has so far 
made a flying ship or apparatus which can not 
only ascend into the air with a load, but can be 
driven in any desired direction under normal con- 
ditions of wind and weather. There is so much 



8 FLYING MACHINES. 

possibility that an experimenter may by accident 
discover the true direction in which to proceed. 
Work on a large scale can only be done at very 
heavy expense, but probably the majority of ex- 
perimenters in this field would in any case com- 
mence by trials with model machines. Eeally 
useful experience can be gained at comparatively 
trifling expense in this way, and a would-be con- 
queror of the air can fairly assume that without 
actual experiment of some sort no reliance can be 
placed upon his designs, however pretty they may 
look on paper. Designs of airships have ranged 
themselves into three classes. There have been 
those who have taken the principle of buoyancy 
as their basis of construction ; they are those who 
look for the solution of the problem by an appara- 
tus which is " lighter than air." The examples are 
balloons. Others hold a contrary opinion, directing 
their efforts to the perfection of machines which 
are " heavier than air," disregarding entirely the 
principle of buoyancy, and contend that the 
machine must raise itself as well as have the 
power to move in a horizontal direction. The 
examples are kites, the term aeroplane having 
been introduced to define this type of construc- 
tion, and machines in which some form of screw 
propeller or vibrating plane is relied upon to pro- 
duce the lifting effort. The third division of 
designers appears to be those who have adopted 
the principle of buoyancy as affording a temporary 
expedient which would serve until further disco- 




PLATE I. -Dr. Barton's Airship in Flight. 

(The Ascent of July, 1905.) 
Facing page 8. 




< 

J 

a 



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> 
H 

re 



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a > 






vvi*i 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

very would render practicable the use of machines 
" heavier than air." The earliest designers seem 
to have adopted the idea of machines heavier than 
air, but probably no reliable information exists as 
to what was actually accomplished. Designs of 
more or less fantastic shape have been proposed, 
but only appear upon paper ; any real attempts 
have all occurred during comparatively recent 
years. Some inventors were no doubt men of 
capability, and deserved to have met with some 
success, but they were not sufficiently cautious or 
methodical, and in making ambitious trial flights 
with their machines met with fatal disaster. A 
great deal of very useful and reliable work has, 
however, been accomplished by men of scientific 
ability, and placed on record ; the novice can, 
therefore, make himself acquainted with the results 
of the experiments and utilise them as a starting 
point for his own work, whether his faith is in a 
ship which is lighter or heavier than air. Such 
data will give him an idea of the size and propor- 
tion of parts to accomplish a given result. In 
considering the problem of aerial navigation it is 
necessary to realise that the atmosphere is a 
decidedly real and tangible thing. Because air is 
invisible the mind does not easily picture its exist- 
ence, hence the novelty of imagining it to be of 
service in sustaining and transporting material 
objects. Aeronauts have, however, recorded their 
experience of descents in which the air appeared 
to be a substance like jelly. Air has a definite 



10 FLYING MACHINES. 

weight, 100 cubic inches weighing 31 grains ; the 
wind which we feel exerts a palpable pressure, 
and is merely air in a state of eddies and flow of 
currents. This wind pressure is capable of exert- 
ing an enormous amount of force, architects and 
engineers when designing large or tall structures 
require to take this fact into serious consideration. 
A wind which is blowing with a velocity of 10 to 
15 miles per hour would exert a pressure of one- 
half to one pound upon every square foot of sur- 
face directly exposed to it, and yet is only a very 
modest breeze indeed. A storm wind blowing at 
about 50 miles per hour presses with more than 
12 lbs. upon each square foot of surface directly 
exposed to it, whilst a hurricane wind exerts more 
than four times this pressure. 

It is therefore quite reasonable to assume that 
a medium which is capable of producing such 
effects can be utilised as a means of communica- 
tion and transport. To be completely successful, 
however, an airship must not only be able to lift 
itself and a load, but have the power to proceed 
against such winds in a horizontal direction. 
Buoyancy alone is not sufficient, it will enable 
the ship to proceed with a favourable wind astern, 
and to ascend and descend, but not to proceed 
against a wind of the most moderate force. An 
airship competes against other forms of travel on 
land and water. In each the traveller is already 
able to proceed in any direction, irrespective of 
the conditions of the weather, except in rare in- 



INTRODUCTION. 11 

stances of storm and stress ; even then he may 
be able to maintain his position until the weather 
moderates. If airships are to justify their exist- 
ence they must be able to do this also, and to do 
it on a commercial basis, having regard to the 
particular sense in which any one may be used. 
The first airships to achieve any degree of success, 
and the only ones at the present time which are 
practicable as a means of aerial locomotion, are 
balloons. They depend entirely upon the prin- 
ciple of buoyancy -to rise and sustain themselves 
and their load in the air. The principle is briefly 
this — if any body floats in equilibrium in a fluid 
the weight of the body is equal to the weight of 
the fluid which it displaces. If the weight of the 
body is less than that of the fluid displaced by it 
the body will rise. For example, if a sealed tin 
can containing air is forced below the surface of 
a tank of water and then released it will at once 
rise to the surface, because it is much lighter than 
the equivalent bulk of water. If the can is loaded 
until its weight is exactly equal to that of the 
equivalent bulk of water, it will remain in equili- 
brium below the surface. Any slight change in 
the weight of the can and its contents will cause 
it to rise or fall until a state of balance is produced 
due to the varying density of the water at the 
different depths. The weight of water displaced 
by the can in every instance exactly balancing 
the weight of the can and its contents. The 
density of the atmosphere varys to a very much 



12 FLYINS MACHINE!. 

greater extent than the density of water for a 
given vertical distance. 

It is therefore possible to adjust the position of 
equilibrium within much smaller limits of move- 
ment than in the case of a body immersed in 
water. Water is, however, about 800 times as 
dense as air for any given volume, the floating 
body must therefore be so much larger to support 
a given weight in air than in water. Any 
apparatus used for the purpose of propulsion must 
also be very much larger as it cannot grip the less 
dense medium so well. It does not follow, how- 
ever, that it need be useless or less efficient 
provided that the shape and proportions are suit- 
able to the conditions of working. 

A balloon is simply a device for displacing a 
sufficient quantity of air to balance its weight and 
that of the load to be lifted. The shape does not 
affect this part of the problem, it is merely a 
question of size. The less the weight of the 
component parts of the balloon the smaller it will 
need to be to lift a given load. For this reason 
such materials as silk, cane, and rope or thin steel 
wire are much used for the construction of balloons 
and their equipment. The substance contained in 
the balloon to take the place of the air displaced 
must be less dense than air, because the difference 
between its weight and that of an equivalent 
quantity of air is a measure of the lifting power 
available. The best arrangement would be a 
vacuum in the balloon as that would give the 



INTRODUCTION. 13 

greatest possible difference between the weights of 
the cubic space in the envelope or container and 
the equivalent quantity of air. Such a method has 
actually been thought of by early designers but 
owing to the fact that the atmosphere exerts a 
pressure of approximately 15 lbs. per square in. 
in all directions, the envelope must be strong 
enough to withstand this pressure if it contains a 
vacuum. An envelope having sufficient strength 
to withstand the accumulated pressure upon such 
a large surface as possessed by an average balloon 
would weigh more than the air displaced and the 
balloon would not rise. If the envelope contains 
a gas the pressure of the air can be balanced, or 
more than balanced, by the expansive property of 
the gas, therefore the envelope can then be made 
of exceedingly light material. It then remains to 
procure a gas which is much lighter than air ; such 
a gas is hydrogen, 100 cubic ins. of which will only 
weigh about 2*14 grains, or about one-fifteenth 
the weight of a similar quantity of air. This is 
the substance which will give the greatest lifting 
power as it is the lightest thing known. Owing 
to the expense of generating pure hydrogen, how- 
ever, coal gas, which is hydrogen mixed with 
carbon, is generally used for inflating modern 
balloons. Being a commercial product it is com- 
paratively cheap and gives a good lifting effort, 
but the very best effect is produced by pure 
hydrogen. The difference between the weights of 
the completely equipped balloon and that of the 



14 FLYING MACHINES. 

quantity of air displaced need only be about 10 lbs. 
in favour of ascension, such margin gives sufficient 
ascending power to take the balloon to a consider- 
able height. 

A certain amount of extra weight is attached to 
the balloon in form of paper or sand so that a 
reserve of lifting power is obtained. When the 
aeronaut desires the balloon to rise he throws 
away some of this weight thus increasing the 
buoyancy ; if he desires to descend he permits some 
of the gas to escape by opening a valve thus de- 
creasing the buoyancy. With this power of 
ascending and descending he can place the balloon 
at different elevations and move horizontally 
according to the direction of the air currents met 
with. This gives a certain amount of control 
over the direction in which the balloon will travel 
without the use of propelling apparatus, as air 
does not necessarily travel in one direction only at 
all degrees of elevation. If the balloon is made 
to rise and fall by this means there must be a 
limit to the time it can remain in the air. The 
continual releaseof gas diminishes the rese rve of 
lifting power until finally, when all the extra 
weight has been thrown away and the balloon is 
made to descend, it cannot be made to rise again ; 
or the descent be checked, because the lifting power 
is not sufficient to sustain the load. 

When the balloon ascends the atmospheric 
pressure diminishes, becoming less the higher the 
elevation attained. This permits the gas inside 



INTK0DTJCTI0N. 15 

the balloon to expand, the effect being that as the 
pressure outside decreases that inside increases, 
and, unless a means of escape is provided, the 
envelope would burst with disastrous results to 
the occupants of the car. A loss of gas thus takes 
place additional to that required to regulate the 
buoyancy, and it is intensified by the effect of 
shadow and sunshine, which causes the gas to 
expand as it becomes heated by the sun's rays and 
to cool when they are obscured by cloud. Apart 
from the object of seeking suitable air currents at 
different altitudes the aeronaut who is merely 
voyaging from one place to another would prefer- 
ably keep his balloon at a fairly constant moderate 
altitude. This can be done where the nature of 
the ground permits without sacrificing the reserve 
of lifting power by using what is called a guide 
rope, an invention of immense value in ballooning 
and due to a celebrated English aeronaut, Charles 
Green. The arrangement consists of along heavy 
rope attached to the car of the balloon and allowed 
to hang vertically downwards so that it touches 
the ground. It forms a part of the extra weight 
but, unlike the loose sand or paper, is not thrown 
away. Whilst this rope is suspended away from 
the ground its entire weight is acting against the 
lifting effort of the balloon. If the buoyancy de- 
creases the rope will touch the ground and as the 
balloon descends an increasing amount of its length 
will rest upon the ground. The balloon will 
obviously be relieved of the weight of this portion 



16 FLYING MACHINES. 

and therefore its buoyancy will be increased 
accordingly, the descent will be checked and a state 
of equilibrium produced. In fact as the balloon 
rises and falls due to variations in the buoyancy 
so will the guide rope rest with more or less of its 
weight upon the ground and act as an automatic 
regulator of the lifting effort. 

The shape of a balloon is determined by the 
use to which it will be put. If it is to be used as 
a drifting balloon the shape will be approximately 
spherical, as the work which it will do is merely 
to float in the currents of air. But if it is to be 
a dirigible balloon the shape will be elongated in 
the direction of its horizontal axis, because the 
shape should be such as to offer the smallest 
practicable amount of resistance when proceeding 
against the direction of flow of an air current. 
The shape which gives best results in this respect 
is somewhat similar to that adopted for the White- 
head torpedo, and agrees with the experiments of 
Captain Eenard, in France, who found that an 
elongated balloon which is larger in diameter at 
the forward end and smaller at the rear end, 
requires less power to drive it through the air 
than if it had ends of equally pointed shape. 

The envelope of a drifting balloon only has to 
bear the strain of supporting the car and its load, 
except under abnormal circumstances. The shape, 
therefore, does not tend to become distorted. A 
dirigible balloon, however, is subjected to the 
pressure of the air current against which it may 



INTRODUCTION. 17 

be moving ; its envelope must therefore be able to 
withstand this strain as well as that due to the 
effort required for lifting and sustaining the car 
and load. This is one of the difficulties which 
the designer of a dirigible balloon has to deal 
with. If the aeronaut releases some of the gas 
for the purpose of descending he is depriving the 
envelope of its internal support, and may come to 
disaster by reason of the distortion of the shape 
of his balloon. According to M. Santos Dumont, 
the successful dirigible balloon must be able to 
descend without losing gas and ascend without 
sacrificing ballast ; in fact, you must not interfere 
with the reserve of lifting power. 

This can be effected by an ingenious device 
which was suggested at the end of the eighteenth 
century by General Mensuir and used by Dupuy 
de Lome in his balloon, as well as by Santos 
Dumont himself. It consists of a small balloon 
or pocket fixed inside the main envelope, and 
filled with air, which is kept at pressure by means 
of a fan. The gas can thus expand without un- 
duly straining the envelope by pressing against 
the pocket which collapses, losing more or less of 
the contained air, and making more space for the 
gas inside the main envelope. If the gas con- 
tracts the pump inflates the pocket again with air, 
so that the reduction in bulk of the gas is com- 
pensated. Escape valves are provided for the air, 
a regular stream flowing through the pocket under 
normal conditions. The balloon is elevated and 

B 



18 FLYING MACHINES. 

descends by the action of its propeller, the envelope 
being tilted to point upwards or downwards by an 
alteration of balance. M. Santos Dumont uses 
his guide rope for this purpose, shifting its position 
so that the weight pulls at front, rear, or centre, 
according to the angle at which he desires the 
balloon to go. 

Attempts have been made to direct airships by 
means of sails, but without much success. There 
are two other methods which have been used, 
namely, by screw propellers and by vibrating 
planes or wings. Neither of these has yet been 
proved to be the superior one. Mr. Laurence 
Hargrave, in Australia, has made models propelled 
by both methods, each flying well. Sir Hiram 
Maxim and Mr. Horatio Phillips in England, 
Messrs. Santos Dumont, Tissandier, Captains 
Eenard and Krebs in France, and others have 
done well with screw propellers driven by steam, 
petrol, electric, and compressed-air engines, though 
the two first-named inventors did not permit their 
machines to have free flight. 

The problem of aerial navigation by machines 
heavier than air resolves itself into two main com- 
ponents, viz., power of sustaining a load in air 
and power of maintaining a proper balance. If 
these can be achieved, the factor of propulsion is 
comparatively easy to deal with. One of the 
most able of scientific experimenters in this art, 
Otto Lilienthai of Berlin, who commenced his 
trials of flight at 13 years of age, and continued 



INTBODTTCTION. 19 

them for 25 years, eliminated the question of 
motive power, and confined himself entirely with 
the problem of balance. He decided that soaring 
birds ascend by skilful use of the pressure pro- 
duced by currents of air, and that no external 
source of power is needed to imitate them, all 
the apparatus required being sustaining surfaces 
correctly designed and constructed, with of course 
an acquired art in using them properly. His in- 
vestigations were published in 1889 as a book, 
called " Der Vogelflug als Grundlage der Fiiege- 
kunst " (" Bird Flight as the Basis of the Flying 
Art ") and his opinion was that birds fly by 
dexterity alone ; there is no mysterious upward 
force or kind of reversed gravity. 

Making some experiments whilst suspended 
from a support by means of a rope, he actually 
succeeded in raising himself about 30 ft. from the 
ground by means of wings, which he vibrated by 
his own power, his weight and that of the machine 
being, however, partly counterbalanced. The 
majority of his experiments consisted in gliding 
flights taken from the top of a hill having a 
moderate slope. These trials were taken so often 
that he regarded them as a sport, in which his 
mechanic assistant also participated. The appa- 
ratus consisted of fixed aeroplanes, to which he 
attached himself, always facing the wind. Not- 
withstanding the proficiency and experience thus 
gained, Lilienthal met his death whilst engaging 
in the attempt to make a flight of greatest possible 



20 FLYING MACHINES. 

length in the capacity of his apparatus. A sudden 
gust of wind appears to have been too heavy for 
him to adjust his equilibrium to meet it, and the 
soundness of his opinions upon this point were 
unluckily proved by the aeroplanes being thrown 
backwards from their proper angle. The apparatus 
thus deprived of the supporting effect of the wind 
fell rapidly to the ground, and the accident proved 
fatal to the enthusiastic and able experimenter. 

Professor Langley, another very clever worker 
at this problem in the United States, constructed 
a model machine which would travel against the 
wind and yet keep at an average horizontal level. 
He considers that a machine can be designed and 
made which w r ould carry out this principle of 
soaring bird flight by utilising the fluctuations 
of w r ind velocity, which, according to his ideas, 
occurred between very much smaller intervals of 
time than generally supposed. To satisfy himself 
that this was so, he made some accurate experi- 
ments by using a very sensitive anemometer, 
which recorded as well as indicated the velocity 
and fluctuations of wind during short intervals of 
time. An account of these experiments is given 
in the Proceedings of the Smithsonian Institute, 
July, 1904, entitled "The Internal Work of the 
Wind,'' showing graphic curves of wind velocities 
plotted against intervals of time. They show that 
changes take place with great rapidity and to an 
extraordinary extent. Existing records as taken 
by an ordinary anemometer, registering at long 



INTRODUCTION. 21 

intervals of time, showed wind velocity varia- 
tion only from 20 to 27 miles per hour ; but 
the true fluctuations as recorded by the special 
anemometer were enormously more than this, and 
occurred with great suddenness. As an example, 
the velocity would vary within the space of one 
minute from about 30 miles per hour to zero, then 
to 14 miles per hour, and regain its former velocity 
within the space of two minutes, including some 
intermediate fluctuations of 12 miles per hour or 
so occurring in between. Some of these curves 
are to be found in Engineering for July 13th, 
1S84, page 51. 

A pioneer experimenter in this idea of the prin- 
ciple of bird flight was Le Bris, who made some 
actual flights in France. He was a sea captain; 
and seems to have had a very good grasp of the 
problem. From observations on soaring birds 
made by him during his voyages, he came to the 
conclusion that when the current of air strikes 
the forward edge of the bird's wing an aspirating 
action is produced, by which the bird is actually 
drawn into the wind without any effort on its 
own part. He shot an albatross, and having 
spread its wings, presented the forward edges to 
the wind, just as the bird would do in flight. He 
states that as a result he felt the bird pulled 
forward into the wind as he had anticipated. His 
soaring machines consisted of aeroplanes of con- 
cave shape, similar to a bird's wing, to which he 
attached himself. 



22 FLYING MACHINES. 

To start his flight he obtained an initial velo- 
city by being driven in a cart or glided from a 
convenient height. A very interesting account is 
given at length of these trials in Chanute's book, 
" Progress in Flying Machines/' page 104, &c. 
Le Bris seems to have abandoned his experiments 
through financial straits and bad luck, also loss of 
energy due to advancing age, rather than to failure 
of his ideas. That lifting effort can be produced 
by the action of an air current upon the edge of a 
curved surface, as distinct from the lifting effect 
produced by an air current moving against an in- 
clined flat surface, has been demonstrated by Mr. 
Horatio Phillips in England. He does not, however, 
appear to have experienced or relied upon the 
aspirating effect mentioned by Le Bris. His 
ideas seem to have been confined to producing a 
lifting effect, and rather to the contrary he shows 
that the lift of his planes was accompanied with 
some amount of backward thrust or drift. Never- 
theless, his principle is quite a distinct and novel 
one. He states as a result of his experiments, 
extending for 27 years, that anything approaching 
a flat surface is useless for supporting heavy loads 
in the air. His idea consists in the use of a 
narrow surface, curved both above and underneath. 
When such a plane encounters a current of air 
directly against its forward edge there is produced 
a difference of pressure between the upper and 
under surfaces, and the plane tends to rise. By 
multiplying the number of planes any desired 



INTRODUCTION. 23 

amount of lifting effect should be produced. He 
proved that this idea was correct by experiments 
upon a variety of shapes of plane, and constructed 
a machine which actually flew round an experi- 
mental track. The advocates of each system, 
"lighter than air," or " heavier than air," have 
scored a partial success, and including, as they do, 
men of undoubted ability on either side, have 
removed the stigma which at one time attached 
itself to every experimenter in the art of aerial 
navigation. 

In Germany, at Berlin, Otto Lilienthal has 
devoted his attention to most painstaking 
study and experiments with soaring apparatus. 
He convinced himself that flat surfaces present 
undue resistance, his final aeroplanes being of the 
concavo-convex form. The trials were made on 
hilly country against the wind, the experimenter 
launching himself and his apparatus from the top 
of a hill itself, or from the roof of a tower con- 
structed for the purpose on the hill. He was suc- 
cessful in soaring to heights of 65 to 82 feet. Daring 
1891 he tried aeroplane wings, having an area of 
172 square ft., the apparatus weighing 53 lbs. 
Including himself the total weight raised was 
229 lbs., which shows that the aeronlane would 
sustain and lift a weight of 1'33 lbs. per square 
foot of area, the wind velocity being calculated as 
23 miles per hour. A tail having vertical and 
horizontal planes was necessary to keep the 
apparatus steady. Lilienthal generally propor- 



24 PLYING MACHINES. 

tioned his aeroplanes to have three-quarter square 
foot of surface per pound weight to be raised and 
sustained. The propelling power calculated (fur- 
nished by the wind) was at the rate of 6 h.-p. 
approximate, to every 1,000 square feet of surface. 
Lilienthal was killed by a fall when making one 
of his flights on August 9th, 1896 ; the cause was 
apparently due to a sudden gust of wind striking 
the aeroplanes and overbalancing the apparatus 
in a backward direction. 



PLATE 


:. 


< 




1 

H 

3* 




O 

» ] 

s 

■ 


^ 1 §■»* 





PLATE VI.— The Wellman Airship. 

An'end view of the Car with Mr. Wellman on board (see extreme right of Car). 





mmS 



PLATE VIII.— An Earlier Deutsch Dirigible. 



CHAPTER II. 
Dirigible Balloons* 



Henry Giffard. 

A name which is well known amongst engineers 
is that of Henry Giffard, the inventor of the 
injector apparatus for feeding water into steam 




Fig. 1.— GiffarcTs Dirigible Balloon. 

boilers, an invention which is in use all over the 
world at the present day. This engineer devoted 
his attention to aerial navigation in 1850 and con- 
structed a dirigible balloon (Fig. 1) . It was of elon- 
gated shape, 39 ft. in diameter at the largest part 



26 FLYING MACHINES. 

and 144 ft. in length over all. Motive power was 
provided by a steam engine driving a screw 
propeller having two blades and a diameter of 11 
ft. To avoid risk of fire the funnel of the boiler 
was bent downwards and draught produced by a 
steam blast. Steering depended upon a rudder of 
sail construction. Mr. Giffard ascended from Paris 
on 24th September, 1852, obtaining a speed of 4J 
to 6f miles per hour with a screw speed of 110 
revolutions per minute. 

A 

Dupuy de Lome. 

Another engineer of repute, Mr. Dupuy de 
L6me, a French naval architect, commenced upon 
the design and construction of a dirigible balloon 
during the siege of Paris in 1870, it was however 
not completed until 1872. He dealt with his 
experiments in a very thorough manner and 
applied his knowledge and experience of navigation 
in water to navigation in air. The balloon of elon- 
gated shape (Fig. 2), had a maximum diameter of 
48ft. and a total length of 118 ft., the capacity for 
containing gas, was 120,000 cubic ft. It was 
propelled by a screw made of sails 29 J ft. diameter, 
26 ft. pitch, driven by 8 men at 27J revolutions 
per minute. The surface of the propeller blades 
was 160 square ft., total and slip ratio 23 per cent., 
the balloon advancing 20 ft. for each revolution of 
the propeller. In the trials a speed of about 6J 
miles per hour was obtained and it was considered 
that the rudder had enabled the course to be altered 



DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS. 



27 



by 12 degrees approximately, the day being windy. 
This balloon had an available ascending power 
of 5,515 lbs. The weight of the structure was 
3,885 lbs. The men who worked the propeller 
weighed together 1,325 lbs., and are supposed to 
have produced ^ h.-p. Apparently the trial was 




Fig. 2.— Dnpuy de Ldme's Dirigible Balloon. 

satisfactory, the calculated and observed velocities 
being almost identical. 

Gaston Tissandier. 

Some experiments were made in 1881 by Gaston 
Tissandier, in France, who also used a screw pro- 
peller to drive his balloon (Fig. 3). But practical 



28 



FLYING MACHINES. 



electric motors having come into existence, he 
applied electricity to drive the propeller, partly be- 
cause there was less risk of fire than with a steam 
engine. Another advantage is that an electric 
motor does not give out products of combustion, 
which disturb the ballasting of the balloon. Ex- 




Fig. 3. — Tissandier'a Dirigible Balloon. 



periments were first made with a model, the large 
balloon being constructed afterwards with the 
assistance of the information gained. This ex- 
perimental model balloon- was of elongated form, 
about 11 ft. in length by 4 ft. 6 ins. diameter at 
the largest part. It had a capacity of 77£ cubic 
feet, pure hydrogen being used to inflate it, giving 



DIBIGIBLB BALLOONS. 



29 



a lifting power of about 4 J lbs. The screw pro- 
peller was driven by means of a very light electric 
motor weighing about J lb., and was provided 
with two blades, the diameter being 18 ins. A 




Fig. 4. —Propeller and Gearing of the Tissandier Balloon. 

battery of accumulators weighing nearly 3 lbs. 
gave electric current to the motor. With the 
propeller rotating at 390 revolutions per minute 
the balloon attained a horizontal speed of two 
miles per hour for 40 minutes. With an accu- 



30 FLYING MACHINES. 

mulator battery of two cells weighing 1J lbs. and 
a propeller having a diameter of 21 ins., the speed 
was approx. 4°4 miles per hour for 10 minutes. 
A further trial with a battery having three cells 
gave a speed of 6*8 miles per hour approx. Be- 
ported tests of the motor seem to show that it 
was doing work at the rate of about 314 foot lbs. 
with a single cell connected to it, and its shaft 
running at 300 revolutions per minute. With 
three cells it was giving about 700 foot lbs. 

Some particulars of the equipment are as 
follows : Balloon of elongated pattern, 91 ft. in 
length by 30 ft. diameter at the largest part ; 
weight, 2,728 lbs.; screw, 9 ft. diameter; weight 
of motor, 119 lbs., geared by spur wheels to run 
at 1,800 revolutions per minute when the screw 
was making 180 revolutions per minute. Fig. 4 
shows the arrangement of the propeller of 
gearing. At the trials made in 1883 the speed 
obtained was about 6J miles per hour, and in 
1884 about eight miles per hour. Apparently 
the experimenters were able to keep the balloon 
head to wind, and at these speeds to steer easily 
when running with the wind and to return to the 
place of departure. 

It was, of course, necessary to provide some 
means of generating the electricity required by the 
elctric motor. M. Tissandier used a primary bat- 
tery of 24 cells, arranged so that the number in use 
at any moment could be varied, thus regulating the 
speed of the motor by altering the voltage applied 



DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS, 



31 



to its terminals. The highest voltage would be 
about 40 volts, as the cell used was of the bi- 
chromate of potash form, which gives nearly two 
volts. 

Renard and Krebs« 

Another electrically driven balloon (Fig. 5) was 
tried by Captains Kenard and Krebs, whose ex- 
periments were made in France during 1884 and 




Fig. 5. — Renard and Kreb's Dirigible Balloon. 

1885. The total length of the balloon was 163 ft. 
and largest diameter 27 ft. ; ascending power, two 
tons (4,480 lbs.) ; volume of balloon, 65,799 cubic 
feet ; length of car, 36 ft. Various parts weighed 
as follows : Balloon, 1,912 lbs. ; silk covering and 
network, 280 lbs. ; car and suspending gear, 
335 lbs. ; rudder, 101 lbs. ; propeller, 90 lbs. ; 
electric motor, 216 lbs. ; gearing and shaft, 170 lbs. ; 
battery of 32 cells, complete (accumulators of 
special design), 958 lbs.; diameter of propeller, 
23 ft. The battery was designed to give nearly 
9,000 watts to the motor during four consecutive 



32 FLYING MACHINES. 

hours ; about 9 b.h.-p. would be therefore available 
to rotate the propeller. A number of trips were 
made with this balloon. On one occasion it 
travelled from Paris to Ohalais and back, en- 
countering a head wind of three to three and 
a-half miles per hour velocity, the voyage being 
repeated upon the following day. Maximum 
height attained, 1,308 ft. A speed of over 13 
miles an hour w r as obtained, the balloon answer- 
ing the rudder and returning to the point of 
departure in five out of seven trips. The balloon 
was successfully driven against a wind having a 
velocity of 11 miles per hour. A maximum speed 
of about llf miles per hour was reached, but in 
other trials the average speed was about 15 J miles 
per hour. Speed of screw propeller, 30 to 40 re- 
volutions per minute. To measure the speed of 
the balloon an aerial log was used. This con- 
sisted of a small balloon made of gold-beater's 
skin filled with about 200 pints of common gas 
and held in equilibrium. Attached to it was a 
silk thread, 109 yds. in length, and wound upon 
a reel. This small balloon being liberated would 
recede from the car ; as soon as the thread had 
run out its length a pull would take place. As 
the end of the thread had been attached to the 
finger of the observer he w T ould feel the pull, and 
could note the time taken for the length of thread 
to run out, and thus ascertain the speed at which 
he was travelling. The electric motor shaft 
rotated at a maximum speed of 3,000 revolutions 



DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS. 



33 




Fig. 6. — Renard and Kreb's Motor and Eegulating 
Apparatus, 



34 FLYING MACHINES. 

per minute. The arrangement of the motor and 
regulating apparatus is shown in Fig. 6. 

Santos Dumont. 

M. Santos Dumont has constructed and made 
trials with several dirigible balloons, all driven 
by screw propellers rotated by petrol engines. 




Fig. 7.-— The No. 9 Santos Dumont Balloon, 

His No. 9 was of comparatively small size (Fig. 7) 
designed to be easily controlled and used for 
short - distance trips. As originally made, its 
capacity was 7,770 cubic ft., giving a lifting 
power to take about 66 lbs. of ballast. It was 
afterwards enlarged to 9,218 cubic ft. capacity. 
The petrol engine was of 3 h.-p. size, weighing 
26J lbs., and a load of 132 lbs. of ballast was 



DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS. 



35 



carried. This balloon had a speed of 12 to 15 
miles per hour, and was driven with the large end 
forward to make it respond more readily to the 
rudder. M. Santos Dumont made a number of 
trips, running for a whole afternoon without los- 
ing any gas or ballast. He actually proceeded 
along the streets of Paris to his house early one 
morning and alighted at the door, leaving the 



/ • 




^jj^ri^Tmw^^m^^ 



**^ 




Fig. 8.— The No. 6 Santos Damont Balloon. 

balloon in the roadway whilst he entered and 
partook of breakfast, then entering the car again 
ascended and made his way to the starting place. 
He used a guide rope 132 ft. in length, and found 
that it worked best when about 66 ft. trailed 
along the ground. 

A larger balloon was the No. 6, with which 
M. Santos Dumont won the Deutsch prize by 
travelling from the Aero Club grounds at St, 



36 FLYING MACHINES. 

Cloud, Paris, to the Eiffel Tower and back, 
rounding the tower en route, the total distance of 
seven miles, plus the turn round the tower, being 
traversed in half-an-hour. The overall length of the 
balloon (Fig. 8) was 110ft., and the largest diameter 
20 ft. ; capacity, 22,239 cubic ft., giving a lifting- 
power of 1,518 lbs. Screw T propeller driven by a 
4-cylinder 12 h.-p. water-cooled petrol motor gave 
a tractive effort of 145 lbs. A compensating 
balloon was used having a capacity of 2,118 cubic 
ft. ; it was placed in the main balloon at the 
underside, and a pump driven by the engine con- 
tinually passed air into it. The air was allowed 
to escape through a valve, and thus a definite 
pressure was maintained. 

Spencer and Sons. 

The Mellin airship constructed by Messrs. 
Spencer & Sons, of London (Fig. 9), is also a com- 
paratively recent example of the dirigible balloon. 
It was made of varnished silk; length, 75 ft.; 
maximum diameter, 20 ft. ; weight, with netting, 
290 lbs. ; capacity, 20,000 cubic ft. ; the car 
was 42 ft. in length, made of bamboo ; motive 
power, a Simms petrol motor having w r ater-cooled 
cylinder and magneto ignition ; speed of engine, 
2,000 revolutions per minute, driving the screw- 
propeller at 200 revolutions per minute. Pro- 
peller of light pine : weight, 28 lbs. ; diameter, 
8 ft., and 4 ft. in width at the ends. 

The following data for the construction of 



DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS. 



37 



dirigible balloons have been calculated in ac- 
cordance with the actual trials of Messrs. Giffard 
and Dupuy de Lome, and with the results given 
by steam engines of the most improved type at 
the time the calculations were made. They are 
taken from the Proceedings of the Institution of 
Civil Engineers, Vol. LXVII. (1882), page 373, 




Fig. 9.— The "Mellin" Airship. 



The paper is by William Pole, F.E.S., and deals 
at length with the subject, giving a considerable 
amount of information. 

The 40-ft. diameter size corresponds to Giffard's 
balloon ; the 50-ft. diameter to Dupuy de Lome's 
balloon. According to these calculations he would 
have obtained better results by using more favour- 
able proportions and modern steam power. He 
could thus have carried an engine of 32 h.-p., 



38 



FLYING MACHINES. 



which would have driven the propeller at three 
times the speed, and produced with the higher 
pitch a velocity of 20 miles per hour. 



Maximum diam of balloon 
Length 

Total ascending f oroe . . . 
Weight of structure ' ... 
Available ascending force 

H.P. of motor 

Weight disposable for 
cargo after allowing 
fuel and water 

Maximum speed through 
the air iu miles per 
hour 

Diameter of screw in feet 

Revs per minute for 
maximum speed 


feet. 

30 

110 


feet. 

40 

147 


feet. 
50 

183 


feet. 

75 
275 


feet. 
100 
867 


lbs. 
2970 
2370 

600 


lbs. 
7040 
4220 
2820 


lbs. 

18750 

6600 

7150 


lbs. 
46400 
14850 
31550 


lbs. 

110000 

26400 

83600 


3 


12 


32 


140 


870 


cwt. 
H 

12 


CWt. 

12J 

17 


cwt. 
32 


tons. 

7 


tons. 
18* 


20 
80 


25 


29 
60 


18 


24 
81 


45 


76 


77 


64 


55 



Giffard's balloon was inflated with coal gas 
only. A velocity of 10 miles per hour should 
have resulted ; it was so much less because of the 
small size of the propeller, which was only about 
one-fifth of the correct area. 



DIBIGIBLB BALLOONS. S9 

With regard to the proportions of a balloon, 
length gives better steering properties and dimin- 
ished resistance in proportion to capacity. The 
proportion of length to diameter was 3'66 in 
Giffard's balloon, and 2*43 in Dupuy de Lome's 
balloon. 

Dr. Barton. 

Among the many laudable attempts made in 
this country to solve the problem of the air was 
that of Dr. A. Barton, of Beckenham, who, in 
conjunction with Mr. F. L. Bawson, in 1904 and 
1905 built a dirigible of very large dimensions. 
During the former year the writer was present 
at the personal demonstration of this huge airship 
by Dr. Barton, at Alexandra Palace. 

As most readers will remember the machine 
was of " the lighter than air type " depending for 
vertical support upon a cylindrical balloon. 

The balloon was 43 ft. in diameter and 176 ft. 
long ; with a cubic capacity of 235,000 ft. ; its 
general shape being shown by the accompanying 
photograph (Plate I) . When filled with hydrogen 
gas the lifting power of balloon was approximately 
16,4001bs. or about 14 per cent, in excess of the 
weight of the framework it supported. To 
keep the envelope quite taut a smaller balloon 
was placed mside the main one. This auxiliary 
balloon was arranged so that it could be inflated 
or deflated with air to compensate for variations 
of temperature and loss of gas, and so prevent any 



40 FLYING MACHINES. 

trouble when the machine was tilted. The 
envelope was made of tussore silk and required 
600 carboys of acid and 50 tons of iron borings to 
completely inflate it with hydrogen gas. The 
framework was constructed of bamboo, the dia- 
meters of these timbers varying from 1J ins. to 
5 ins. The carriage was attached to the gas-bag 
by about 80 steel wire cables. The deck was 
made of latticed wood, and a light bamboo frame- 
work, filled in with wire netting, enclosed it on 
all sides. The bamboo members w r hich formed 
the frame were lashed together with cord at the 
joints. The keel was 120 ft. long; the deck 123 ft. 
long; and the upper frame 127 ft. long. 

Four propellers were provided, two at each end 
of the ship. These were of compound con- 
struction, built up of three two-bladed propellers, 
the blades of each lying behind one another. The 
bearings for the propeller shafts were mounted on 
4 steel tubes (A Fig. 10), which passed right across 
the ship and were held together at each end by 
aluminium castings, which were braced by tie rods ; 
indeed the whole structure was an elaborate system 
of cross bracings, bamboo rods corded together at 
the joints and steel wires forming the major 
portion of the materials used. Two 50 h.-p. 
motors of the latest Buchet type were fitted, the 
the motors being bolted down to strong aluminium 
castings, which were clipped to the large bamboo 
members, a pair of these castings being used for 
each motor. The motors were fixed with their 




PLATE IX.— The Francois* Lambert Dirigible "Ville St. Maude. 

Facing page 40. 




PLATE Xll.— Machinery of Archdeacon's Air Propeller Cycle 



DIBIGIBLB BALLOONS. 



41 



crankshafts lying parallel with the keel, and were 
provided with large friction clutches, the power 
beiag transmitted through gearing and by belts to 
the propeller shafts. The engines were destined 
to run at a normal speed of 1,600 revolutions per 
minute, the velocity ratio of the transmission 
system to the propellers being 8 to 1. Each of 




SECTION 

THROUGH DRIVING 

MECHANISM. 



SECTION 
THROUGH SHIP BETWEEN 
THE MOTORS. 



Fig. 10.-— The Barton-Rawson Airship. 

the motors were under the control of a separate 
man and the speed of the propellers was arranged 
to be controlled by regulating the throttle and 
spark advance of the engine in the usual way. 

The horizontal balance of the air ship was pre- 
served in a very novel manner. Two fifty gallon 



42 FLYING MACHINES. 

tanks, half filled with water, were fitted one at each 
end of the carriage. These tanks (Fig. 11) were 
connected by a single line of piping working 
through a semi-rotary hand pump placed amid- 
ships. A man was stationed at this pump and 
when the craft tended to tip one way or the 
other, the water was transferred from the tank at 
the lower end to the higher one. In this way the 
air ship could be readily maintained in the 
horizontal position and any surging of the gas 
in the gigantic balloon above prevented. 

To obtain various altitudes without the ex- 
penditure of ballast, the airship was provided 
with several aeroplanes, the balloon being in- 
tended to have just sufficient lifting power to 
counterbalance the weight of the carriage and its 
accessories, the engines therefore being relied on 
to supply the necessary power in propelling it 
forward in the direction required and for lifting it 
to the desired height. 

As originally designed, there were no less than 
30 " Venetian-blind " aeroplanes arranged in three 
banks of ten, each set being mounted, so that 
they normally laid flat, in a horizontal plane, but 
could be simultaneously canted to any angle, up 
or down. For this purpose the aeroplanes were 
pivotted to the frame, some at the forward 
edges and some in the middle. Each aeroplane 
measured 15 ft. long by 3 ft. wide, giving a surface 
of 45 square ft., or an aggregate of 1,350 square ft. 
in all. 



DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS. 43 

The aeroplanes were originally fixed between 
the deckline and the top of the carriage, as shown 
in the photographs of the excellent model (Plates 
I, II, and III). 

For the ascent of Saturday, July 22, 1905, four 
aeroplanes like sails were provided. But while 
the experiments were, on the whole, considered 
to be satisfactory, the use of such a heavy carriage 
as that employed in the Barton-Eawson navigable 



A 
X 



Forehead - After \ 

tank tank -p* 



jfi fef~KoTQr<i pump ^ J" 



Fig. 11. — The Balancing Tanks of the Barton-Rawson Airship. 

balloon does not seem to have been justified, and 
no further developments are recorded. 

In any case the dirigible did not return, on this 
occasion, to the starting point, but drifted away 
and came to grief in landing. Furthermore, 
the reports which were at one time prevalent 
that the airship was intended for the British War 
Department were not confirmed. 

Paul and Pierre Lebaudy. 

It is not possible, owing to limitations of space, 
to describe the earlier experiments of MM. Paul 
and Pierre Lebaudy with their dirigible balloons 
in France. From first to last their airships have 
been uniformly successful, and the mishaps they 
have had, especially the more serious one which 



44 FLYING MACHINES. 

practically destroyed the first vessel, were not 
due to radical defects in the design of the re- 
spective craft. 

The largest and latest dirigible, "LaPatrie" 
(Plate IV) is the second airship of the fleet 
the French War Ministry is having built for 
service on the Eastern frontiers. The previous 
vessel, " The Lebaudy," which on trial kept 
the air for a period of over three hours, circling 
to and fro between Moisson and Frenuese in a 
wind blowing at the rate of eight miles per 
hour, and attained a velocity of 26 miles per hour 
with the wind and 11 miles per hour against 
it, formed the basis of the design for " La Patrie." 

The new vessel, however, has a rather large 
volume of gas at the rear end of the envelope, the 
cubic contents of which is 3,200 cubic metres 
(113,000 cubic ft.). The length of the envelope 
is 60 metres (196 ft.), and diameter at thickest 
part 10*3 metres (33 ft. 9 ins.). The envelope is 
so reinforced that it will remain inflated for over 
three months. 

To give the vessel greater vertical and lateral 
stability, the new airship has at the rear end of 
the balloon four fins, as shown in the photographs. 
The other noticeable features of the " Patrie's " 
gas envelope are the vertical and horizontal steady- 
ing planes under the balloon and the peculiar 
prow. Below the gas envelope is the usual car, 
but it is of very small size compared to that of 
the supporting balloon. Under the deck extends 



DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS. 45 

a frame of steel tubes. This is shaped like an 
inverted pyramid, upon the apex of which the 
whole car can rest when it is on the ground. In 
this'frame is fitted the petrol tank. 

The propelling engine consists of a 75 h.-p. 
Panhard petrol motor (that is, 20 h.-p. more 
than used in the earlier airship " Lebaudy ") 
driving two screw propellers, one on each 
side of the navigator's car. These pro- 
pellers are mounted on a frame of steel rods, 
and are actuated by a shaft passing out at 
the sides of the car and through bevel gearing. 
The motor is an exceptionally flexible one, and 
can be made to work the propeller satisfactorily 
at speed varying from 200 to 900 revolutions per 
minute. The exhaust pipe is carried to the back 
of the car, and ends in an efficient muffler. 

In the "Patrie," the flat plane which forms 
part of the underside of the balloon is situated 
nearer to the front end, with the car suspended 
not from the middle, but rather towards the rear 
end. The keel frame, or plane, ends in a large 
rudder, which is of the balanced type, and is 
actuated by cords from the car. Most of the 
tensional members of the frame are made of wire 
rope for sake of strength and lightness. 

Among the minor improvements, the " Patrie ' 
is fitted with an electric alarm bell, which warns 
the navigators whenever the pressure of gas in 
the balloon reaches a predetermined maximum. 

The lifting capacity is given at 1,260 kilo- 



46 FLYING MACHINES. 

grammes (2,772 lbs.), so that the airship, besides 
carrying a petrol supply for 10 hours, can take 
a crew of three persons and 850 kilogrammes 
(1,870 lbs.) of ballast or other material, or a 
larger crew and a proportionately small load. 

The first trials of the " Patrie " were made on 
November 16, 1906. At 8.20 a.m. the airship 
was taken out of the special shed erected for it. 
The weather was fine, with a fair breeze blowing, 
and after several preliminary trials close to the 
ground to test the working of the propellers, it 
was let go. On board were Georges Juchin&s (the 
pilot), Captain Voyer (the delegate of the War 
Ministry) , the future military commander of the 
airship Lieut. Bois (of the Aeronautical Depart- 
ment of Chalais Meudon), and two mechanics, 
and proceeded at a height of just over 100 metres 
(328 ft.), manoeuvring quite successfully against 
the stiff breeze. The vessel then encircled the 
village of Lavacourt at a speed of 15 miles per 
hour, and, returning,' stopped dead over the shed. 
It was housed without a hitch, and on the 22nd 
of the same month was again put through further 
tests, and in the second trip of the day, from 
2 p.m. until nightfall, owing to the use of the 
planes, it was found that only 22 lbs. of ballast 
had been expended. The Panhard-Levassor motor 
was worked at about two-thirds speed, and 
with a maximum speed of only 30 miles per 
hour, the high average of 22 miles per hour was 
maintained throughout the trip. Buiing iti 



DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS. 47 

fourth trial, on November 24, it faced a 20-mile- 
an-hour wind, and on November 26 made the 
best performance of all, sailing a distance of 57f 
miles in 132 minutes. At the time of writing, the 
third ship for the French Government, which will 
be named the " Republique," is in hand, again to 
the designs of M. Julliot, the engineer of the 
11 Lebaudy " and " La Patrie." 

Count de la Vaulx. 

Another French aeronaut, Count de la Vaulx, 
has recently made over 10 ascents, all perfectly 
successful. Count de la Vaulx, it will be re- 
membered, was one of the earlier experi- 
menters with dirigible balloons, and carried out a 
large series of demonstrations, mostly in the 
Mediterranean, of ordinary balloons made more 
or less navigable by means of a triple system of 
floats on the water. 

The present machine is in many respects similar 
to the earlier Deutsch airship, but it is much 
smaller than the " Ville de Paris." 

It was tried with success in July, 1906, and re- 
mained afloat for over seven and a-half hours with 
the Count and M. Maurice Mallet on board. An 
evolution test was made in the following January, 
and although no definite data are available, owing 
to the brisk wind prevailing at the time, the trials 
are said to have been entirely successful. 

Since then the airship has covered 12 J kilo- 
meters (7£ miles) in 22 minutes at au altitude of 



48 FLYING MACHINES. 

from 200 to 300 metres (650 to 980 ft.). On 
this occasion, February 4, 1907, 73 kilogrammes 
(160 lbs.) of ballast were carried, and 50 cubic 
metres (1,765 cubic ft.) of hydrogen gas were 
added to the balloon, only this small amount 
being required after it had been inflated for 47 
days. Six days later two journeys, to Montesson 
and to Vesinet and back, were made with only 55 
kilogrammes of ballast (120 lbs.) on board. The 
gas vessel has a capacity of 725 cubic metres 
(25,580 cubic ft.), and in practice only a small 
amount of ballast out of that carried was used. 
Most of this was only employed to modify the 
descent in alighting. 

The general arrangement of the airship is a cigar- 
shaped balloon of regular outline, with a girder or rod 
slung from it, having a propeller at the fore end 
and a rudder at the other. The car containing 
the engine is a small one, hung below this, and 
the power is transmitted, therefore, by a telescopic 
shaft and two sets of bevel gearing. 

Since the trials of this dirigible, Count de la 
Vaulx has, it is reported, become converted to the 
tenets of the " heavier-than-air " school, and is 
engaged on a new aeroplane machine, the details 
of which are contained in the following chapters. 

Count Zepperlin. 

Count Zepperlin, the famous German military 
officer, who has devoted a considerable portion of 
his life and one fortune in attempting to solve the 



DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS. 49 

many difficulties of the problem, is responsible for 
the huge airship with which he has for some time 
past experimented over the placid waters of Lake 
Constance. 

His first notable airship was tried in 1900, and 
although only three flights were made in that 
year, and the results obtained were more or less 
satisfactory, they were marred by a series of un- 
fortunate accidents. One trial was made on 
June 30 of the above year. In July the craft 
was propelled against a breeze stated by various 
authorities to be blowing 12 to 16 miles per hour 
at the rate of two miles per hour. 

Daring one flight it remained in the air over an 
hour, although by some mishap the steering gear 
w T as partly unmanageable. The attempts showed, 
however, that the huge airship was, within the 
limits of its speed, dirigible, several complete 
circles being made in the air during the ascent. 

The vast expense in building and experiment- 
ing w r ith such an airship, and the outlay fo^ 
the balloon house and accessory machinery, quite 
exhausted the inventor's resources, and Count 
Zepperlin was not able to proceed to any further 
developments until November of 1905. 

The proportions of the airship of 1900 were 
truly remarkable. The gas envelope was of poly- 
gonal shape in cross section, and no less than 
420 ft. long by 40 ft. diameter, it being bluntly 
pointed at the front and rounded at the rear. To 
enable the shape of the envelope to be retained 

D 



50 FLYING MACHINES. 

it was built up of a framework of aluminium 
covered with oil cotton fabric* The envelope 
was divided into 17 separate compartments. 

The craft with which the recent experiments 
were made was about 10 ft. shorter, but, owing to 
the diameter being larger, the capacity was in- 
creased by 32,000 cubic ft. to 370,000 cubic ft. 
The total weight of the later airship is one ton less 
than the original vessel, the total being 19,800 lbs. 
with ballast and equipment. Liquid ballast was 
still employed, the water being contained in bags 
which could be opened by valves from the navi- 
gator's deck. The gas bag of the later ship was, 
it is understood, only divided into six compart- 
ments, each of which were fitted with suitable 
valves under the control of the man in charge. 

Instead of having only two 32 h.-p. petrol 
engines! as motive power, the later machine 
employed over five times the power, with a total 
extra expenditure of weight of only 11 lbs., the 
figures being 170 h.-p. for a load of 880 lbs. One 
engine was placed at each end of the vessel, each 
actuating two propellers situated near to the gas 
vessel on either side. 

The steering apparatus was in duplicate and so 
arranged that one man could actuate the fore and 
after rudders without moving. 

During the ascent of November, 1905, trouble 
was again experienced with the steering gear on 

* Pegamoid, it is understood, was used in the later balloon, 
t Two 16 h.-p. Daimler motors. 



DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS. 51 

the forward portion of the vessel, which became 
partly submerged in the lake, although the rear of 
the airship was sustained in the air by the gas and 
one motor. 

Last year the airship was afloat, at one time, 
for a period of two hours and attained an altitude 
of 1,000 ft. above the Lake Constance. During 
that time it appeared to be under perfect control, 
describing circular paths and other similar 
evolutions. It is also said to have held its ground 
against a 33 miles an hour wind, but this is a 
doubtful claim. Another report gives 12 miles 
per hour. The end of the airship was occasioned 
by the derangement of the longitudinal stability 
when it struck a tree and was destroyed. 

Count Zepperlin, in announcing his retirement 
from the field of aeronautical experiment, admitted 
that his ship was too large, but it would appear 
that, perhaps owing to the success of the French 
in aerial navigation, the German military autho- 
rities are following up the work of Count 
Zepperlin. 

Major August von Parseval, by the aid of the 
Government, has, we understand, built a diri- 
gible balloon embodying some of the ideas of 
Count Zepperlin. This machine is 160 ft. long 
with a single propeller, 13ft. diameter, driven 
by a 90 h.-p. petrol motor. It has, however, 
no rigid framework, 

As far as can be ascertained, at the test of June, 
1906, the machine rose in the air about 1,000 ft. 



52 FLYING MACHINES. 

and oame back to the starting point. The 
capacity of the gas envelope is given as 8,000 
cubic feet, and the dirigible is said to have a hori- 
zontal tail as well as a vertical rudder. The 
German military authorities, however, are guard- 
ing the details of the machine and complete in- 
formation is not obtainable. 

Henri Deutsch. 

The new airship of Mons. Henri Deutsch de la 
Meurthe, built to the plans of Mons. Surcouf, 
shown in the accompanying photograph (Plate V) 
is one of the largest in France, the gas envelope 
measuring 201 ft. in length, 35 ft. maximum 
diameter, and having a capacity of 3,500 cubic 
metres (123,500 cubic feet). 

The chief feature of the new dirigible lies, as 
will be seen by a comparison with Mons. 
Deutsch's earlier machine (Plate VIII) in 
the novel form given to the rear end of 
the gas vessel. The eight supplementary cylin- 
drical balloons, which are placed cruciform 
fashion on the cylindrical tail of the main 
balloon, are intended to steady the craft and 
are thought to be preferable to the use of canvas 
covered frames or fins. The other noteworthy 
feature of design is the car frame slung from the 
balloon. This is a braced girder of rectangular 
cross section tapering to a point at each end. 

The motor used on the " Ville de Paris, 3 ' was a 
four-cylinder Argus developing 70 il-p,, and the 



DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS. 58 

propellers were geared down 5 to 1. In the earlier 
vessel the propeller was fixed to this frame at the 
end, but the removal of the rudder from a position 
just under the rear end of the gas envelope to end 
of the frame necessitated the placing of the pro- 
peller at the front end of the car frame. 

The trials were attended with a series of un- 
fortunate accidents. It commenced operations 
under control of the guide rope, the crew of the 
vessel being made up of four persons, Mons. E. 
Surcouf at the helm. 

Considerable trouble was experienced with the 
carburettor freezing, owing to the cold weather 
and movement of the airship. This was further 
aggravated by the fact that the exhaust, which 
to prevent accidents from fire is water cooled, did 
not help in heating the carburettor. As a result 
the engine stopped every few minutes and the 
flight had to be discontinued. 

Whilst in the air, however, the machine 
appeared to be quite steady, but in the operation 
of alighting, the guide rope caught in a tree and in 
endeavouring to free it, the navigators rendered 
the airship unsteady. It swooped down amongst 
some trees, damaging itself considerably, and came 
down in a neighbouring field, the high wind caus- 
ing the gas vessel to buckle and become deflated. 
On examination it was found that the car had also 
suffered considerable damage and up to the time 
of going to press no further trials have been made. 
The guide rope method of control appears to be 



54 FLYING MACHINES. 

the weak spot in the design of the '' Ville de Paris." 
It is in this, the matter of control, that the 
Lebaudy Brothers, with their " La Patrie," seem 
to have made such remarkable progress. 

Francois Lambert. 

The dirigible " Ville de St. Maude" (Plate 
IX) was exhibited in the Galerie des Machines 
prior to its dispatch to the St. Louis Exposition 
in 1904. 

This airship was designed by Mons. H. 
Francois. The gas vessel was of the cigar- 
shaped type, rather fuller in the centre than 
those of the Santos Dumont dirigibles, which 
immediately preceded it. The total length of the 
envelope was 32*5 metres (106 ft. 6 ins.), with a 
capacity of 1,850 cubic metres (65,300 c. ft.) the 
internal balloonette holding about 10,000 c. ft. 

The motive power was supplied by a four-cylinder 
Prosper-Lambert motor, giving 30 h.-p., mounted 
almost exactly amidships, and driving four pro- 
pellers placed at the four upper corners of the 
triangular framework of the car. The forward 
propellers measured 3*1 metres (10 ft. 2 ins.) 
diameter, and those aft 3*75 metres (11 ft. 3 ins. 
diameter) . The main framework of the case 
was 2*8 metres (9 ft. 2 ins.) long by the same 
dimensions in height. The petrol tank (60 litres 
capacity) and exhaust silencer were placed below 
this, and, to prevent them being damaged when 
the machine rested on the ground, these accessories 



DTUTGTBLE BALLOONS. Do 

were safeguarded by the provision of two trussed 
frames projecting below the main frame. Fore 
and aft of the main frame extended a trussed 
girder, shown in the photograph supporting the 
bags of ballast. 

The two parallel propeller shafts were placed 
longitudinally on each side of the frame and 
and ran in ball bearings. They were arranged to 
revolve in opposite directions, one belt from the 
engine being crossed. The proper belt tension 
was maintained by jockey pulleys, and a fan was 
used to keep the balloonette full of air. The total 
weight of the airship was 1,450 kilogrammes 
(3,190 lbs.). 

The airship arrived at St. Louis after several 
mishaps during transit, but no reports of any 
special success obtained with this dirigible are 
forthcoming. 

Wellman. 

In connection with the Wellman Airship Ex- 
pedition to the North Pole, extensive preparations 
are at the time of writing being made at Dane's 
Island, a point midway between the North Pole 
and Cape North, Lapland. To cover the inter- 
vening 600 miles, a dirigible balloon, of which we 
include herewith a general view (Fig. 12) and 
photograph of the propelling machinery (Plate 
VI), specially designed to suit the needs of the 
expedition is being completed in a large hall 200 ft. 
long by 75 ft. wide and 85 ft. high. 



56 FLYING .MACHINES. 

The vessel has entirely novel features. The 
gas vessel is constructed to hold 224,000 cubic 
feet of hydrogen. Two motors (Plate VII) are 
employed, both of de Dion's manufacture, one 
giving 45 h.-p. and the other 60 h.-p. 

To maintain the gas envelope in a full inflated 
condition — to allow for leakage and for the con- 
traction of the gas by the cold — a, separate 5 h.-p. 
motor is carried to compress air and conduct it to 
an internal balloonette which is formed in the lower 
part of the main balloon, the partition being shown 
by the dotted line in the drawing. 

The car is a strong frame of constructed steel 
tubing and has a completely enclosed central 
section which comprises the engine room and liv- 
ing room. 

The airship is designed only for moderate speed, 
or, which is the same thing, to hold its own 
against any ordinary unfavourable winds. About 
10 to 12 miles per hour is expected. 

For maintenance of a vertical equilibrium a 
modification of the usual guide rope is employed. 
As stated in Chapter I. the ordinary guide rope is 
simply a line or chain trailing over the surface of 
the earth ; and when the balloon tends for any 
reason to rise, the extra weight of the rope which 
would have to be carried prevents the upward 
movement. In a similar manner any tendency 
for the airship io descend relieves it of some of the 
suspended weight and the effect is the same as re- 
moval of ballast, and the equilibrium is maintained. 




I, I 



> 

W 
H 

< 







Z 3 



S" 



> 

x 

H 

a 



DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS. 



57 



In the Wellman airship the guide rope and its 
accessories will weigh about 1,200 lbs., and it is 
constructed to act equally well upon water as 
upon ice. The lower end will have four steel 
cylinders about 10 ft. apart attached to the steel 



Gattcr for 
Water Jugj0 : 



Emertfency Va/*e 




Gufcfe v4 Front 




tTucfder 



Screw ^\ ^^ afc= ^5^^ s ^PIf ! **^^|*"/^o^ Screrr 
Engine, ■—^Sr&ef Boat** l '*'"9 * S/eepinq f?oom 

Fig. 12. — General Arrangement of The "Wellman" Airship. 



cable, with wood runners outside. The cylinders 
will be so arranged that they will float in water. 
The excess cable of the " equilebreur " or guide rope 
—which, by the way, also acts as a retarder — will 
be carried in a steel boat hung below the car as 
indicated in the sketch (Fig. 12). 



CHAPTER III. 

Flying Machines. 



Lawrence Hargrave. 

Mr. Lawrence Hargrave, of Sydney, New South 
Wales, has attacked the problem by means of 
kites with which he has ascended into the air, 
and models which have been made to fly so 
that their action could be observed. The kites 
used were of box pattern, made of calico, stretched 
upon frames of American redwood. Mr. Har- 
grave connected four of these to a strong line, 
which was held to the ground by bags of sand. 
A sling seat was suspended to the lower kite so 
that the experimenter could be lifted by the com- 
bined pull of the four. Several ascents were 
made, on one occasion with the wind having a 
velocity of 18*6 miles per hour — a spring balance 
connected in series with the line indicated that 
the kites were exerting a pull of 180 lbs. ; with the 
wind at 21 miles per hour, the pull indicated a 
force of 240 lbs. The kites weighed together 
38 lbs., seat and line 7 lbs., aeronaut 166 lbs., 
making a total weight of 211 lbs., lifted by a kite 
surface of 232 square feet. Mr. Hargrave stated 
that he found this a safe method of experiment- 
ing, and appears to have ascended and descended 
without fear of accident, the kites being certain 



FLYING MACHINES. 



59 



and stable in their action and needing no careful 
adjustment. These particulars of the kites used 
are taken from Engineering of February 15th, 
1895, Vol. LIX., where Mr. Hargrave gives details 
of his experiences : — 









c*g o ** 
















<o O 44 c 
















? c "3 S • 
















41 ^ yJ= rJ 












Breadth 


Depth 


i-p-gja 


Weight 


Length 


Distance 


Lifting 


Kite. 


of each 


of each 


« § « 3 2 


of 


of each 


between 


surface 




cell. 


cell. 


Distance 
the forw 
the forw 
point of i 
of Id 


Kite. 


cell. 


the cells. 


of kite. 




ft. in. 


ft. in. 


ft, in. 


lbs. ozs. 


ft. in. 


ft. in. 


sq. ft. 


A 


5 


i io.i 


1 7 


5 7 


1 11 


2 1 


38-5 


B 


5 


1 10^ 


1 7 


5 14 


1 11 


2 4 


385 


C 


7 8* 


1 10i 


2 8 


9 8 


2 3 


4 5 


69-0 


1) 


6 6" 


2 3£ 


2 3 


9 


2 6 


3 6 


650 


B 


9 


2 6 


2 10 


14 8 


2 6 


4 


90-0 



This inventor's experiments cover a period of 
years, and were carried out in a scientific spirit, 
the subject being studied in a very thorough 
manner. He made a number of flying models 
which have flown experimental trials, giving his 
results for the benefit of other workers in the 
problem of aerial navigation. These machines 
give evidence of a high degree of constructive skill 
and mechanical knowledge on the part of their 
designer. In his first models he used elastic 
rubber bands as a motive power, 48 of them 
weighing about 10 oz., and each stretching to 30 
inches with about 30 lbs. weight. The machine, 
Fig. 13, weighed 33J oz. ; 470 foot lbs. of energy 



60 FLYING MACHINES. 

could be stored in the elastic bands, and was suffi- 
cient to propel it through a flight of 270 feet 
horizontal. Total area of the sails was 2,130 
square inches, and the centre of effort 14*6 inches 
behind the centre of gravity. A similar machine 
was also tried ; it weighed 1*28 lbs., and flew 192 




Fig. 13. — Hargrave's Model with Vibrating Wingt. 

feet in a horizontal direction, when the elastic 
bands gave out 193 foot lbs. of energy. The 
following results were obtained on other trials : 
Horizontal flights of 203 feet and 209 feet with 
an expenditure of 208 and 218 foot lbs. of energy 
respectively; sail area 1,980 square inches of 
surface, the centre of effort being 14*2 inches 



PLYING MACHINES. 



61 



behind the centre of gravity. A small fore and 
aft sail was fitted for the purpose of obtaining 
steadiness of flight. This is an instance of for- 
ward motion being produced by means of vibrating 
wings moving up and down in a vertical direc- 
tion. They were not provided with any direct 




Fig. 14. — Hargrave's Machine with Screw Propeller. 

twisting or feathering motion, but a feathering 
action took place due to the flexibility of the 
material of which the wings were made. 

Mr. Hargrave, however, made experiments with 
a screw propeller as the means for producing the 
forward motion. 

The model shown in Fig. 14 is fitted with a 



62 FLYING MACHINES. 

screw instead of wings. Its weight was 2 lbs., 
and sail area 2,090 square ins., the centre of 
effort being 10*5 ins. behind the centre of gravity. 
With an expenditure of 196 foot lbs. of energy, 
the machine flew 120 feet horizontal. In these 
three machines the percentage of sail area in 
advance of the centre of gravity was as follows : 
No. 1 model, 19*3 per cent. ; No. 2 model, 20 per 
cent. ; No. 3 model, 23*3 per cent. 

Pig. 15 shows another machine, in which the 
forward motion is produced by vibrating wings, 
w T orked by a small engine, the motive power being 
compressed air. Some details of this model are 
as follows (complete working drawings are to be 
found in the Proceedings of the Boyal Society of 
New South Wales, Vol. XXIV.) : Area of body 
plane, 2,128 square ins. ; of wings, 216 square 
ins. The backbone is tubular, and forms the re- 
servoir for the compressed air ; it is 48J ins. in 
length by 2 ins. diameter, and has a capacity of 
144*6 cubic ins. The weight is 19J ozs. At first 
30 per cent, of the sail area was placed in front of 
the centre of gravity. But this arrangement did 
not prove successful, and the proportion was re- 
duced to 23*3 per cent. The engine cylinder used 
for vibrating the wings has a diameter of 1| ins. ; 
stroke of piston, ljins. ; weight of engine, 6 J ozs. ; 
compressed air pressure, 230 lbs. per square inch. 
Movement is communicated to the wings by links, 
which connect the wing rods to the cylinder ; the 
piston rod is fixed and the cylinder moves up and 



PLYING MACHINES. 63 

down, air under pressure being admitted from the 
reservoir to the cylinder, through a valve moved 
by tappets, during the entire length of each stroke. 
Vulcanite is used for the piston, with cup leather 
packing. As with the previous models, the wings, 
which are of paper, have no direct feathering 
motion, but depend upon the give of the material. 
Their weight is 8 ozs. This machine flew a 
horizontal distance of 368 feet, the air being quite 
calm. 




Fig. 15. — Hargrave's Machine Driven by Compressed Air. 

Other models were also made, using com- 
pressed air as the motive power. One of 
larger size than the machine previously de- 
scribed, the length of the reservoir backbone 
being 6 ft. 11 ins. by 2 ins. diameter; capa- 
city, 251 cubic ins. ; weight, 15 J ozs. Area 
of body plane is 3,074 square ins., of which 732 
square ins. is in advance of the centre of gravity 
of the machine. The engine cylinder has a 
diameter of 2 ins., and the piston a stroke 



64 FLYING MACHINES. 

1*38 ins. ; weight of engine, 11 ozs. ; length of 
wing, 31 ins. ; area, 216 square ins. The re- 
servoir was charged to a pressure of 250 lbs. per 
square in., which was reduced to 57 lbs. per 
square in. at the piston; its weight charged 
59 ozs. An expenditure of 509 foot lbs. of work 
gave 46 double vibrations of the wings, carrying 
the machine through a flight of 512 feet. 

Another engine was tried with this machine, 
the cylinder diameter being 2 ins. ; stroke of 
piston, 1 J ins. ; weight, 9 ozs. ; pressure of 
air, 69 lbs. per square in. at the piston. With 
54J double vibrations of the wings the machine 
had a flight of 343 feet in 23 seconds, an estimated 
expenditure of energy being 742 foot lbs. for u 
speed of 10 miles per hour approximately. 

Trials were made with a model propelled 
by means of a steam engine, and thrust results 
obtained as follows :— 

2*2 vibrations of the wings per sec. gave 

a forward thrust of ... ... '75 lbs. 

2*3 Ditto ditto *9 „ 

2*4 Ditto ditto ... ... 11 „ 

2*5 Ditto ditto ... ... 1*25 „ 

There is no novel feature about the steam 
engine, but the boiler is made of 12 ft. of copper 
pipe, \ in. diameter, coiled into a tube of asbestos 
sheet. It weighs 20J ozs., including steam and 
water connections. Water is fed to the boiler by 



FLYING MACHINES. 65 

-a feed pump ^ in diameter from a triangular 
tank fixed underneath the body of the machine. 
Capacity of engine cylinder, 2*2 cubic ins. ; water 
space in boiler, 2*8 cubic ins. ; external surface of 
boiler, 113 square ins. ; internal surface, 71 square 
ins. For fuel, vaporised methylated spirit mixed 
with air, the spirit being contained in a cylindrical 
tank fixed at the top of the boiler. When the 
engine was working at the rate of 182 double 
vibrations of the wings in 80 seconds, 6*9 cubic 
ins. of water were evaporated by 1*7 cubic ins. of 
spirit. 

The total weight of the machine is 64*5 ozs., of 
which 12| ozs. are for the strut and body plane. 
Spirit and water weighed 5 ozs., and the engine 
gave 0*169 h.-p. when driving the wings at 235 
double vibrations per second. With 10 ozs. more 
spirit and water, Mr. Hargrave calculates that 
the machine would fly a horizontal distance of 
1,640 yds. The boiler is empty at starting, and, 
first of all, is warmed by a Bunsen flame. The 
spirit tank is then heated until the vapour ignites 
the flame, being maintained by some asbestos put 
into the coil. As the boiler becomes red hot, the 
wings are vibrated for a few strokes ; the pump 
discharges a small quantity of water into the 
boiler ; steam is thus instantaneously generated 
on the flash principle, aud the engine commences 
to work. 

A larger machine is designed to have 480 square 
ft. of horizontal plane, weight 260 lbs., requiring 

E 



66 



FLYING -MACHINES. 



3 h.-p. for propulsion, and to run for 10 minutes 
at a time. 

Mr. Hargrave has regularly published accounts 
of his experiments in the Transactions of the 
Boyal Society of New South Wales. The matter 
given in Vols. XVII., XIX., XXI., XXIII., and 
XXIV. goes extensively into the subject of 
mechanical flight by means of vibrating wings. 
The following comparison between two of his 
machines appears in Vol. XXIII., one of them 
being screw propelled, and the other having 
vibrating wings or trochoided planes, as he 
calls them. 





Screw. 


Trochoided 
plane. 


Total area in square inches 


2090 


2130 


Square inch area per lb. weight 


1045 


1019 


Weight in lbs. 


2-00 


2 09 


Lbs. weight per square inch. 


00095 


00100 


Foot lbs. of power used 


196 


470 


Horizontal distance flown in feet 


120 


270 


Distance in feet per loot lb. of power 


•61 


•57 



One of Mr. Hargrave's engines was made to 
serve as the boss of the screw propeller. It had 
three cylinders, *88-in. bore, each being in line 
with one of the blades, and all in the same plane ; 
weight, 7 J ozs. ; stroke of pistons, 1*3 in. ; work- 
ing pressure of air, 150 lbs. per square in., falhng 
to 120 lbs. per square in. ; cut off at f stroke ; 



FLYING MACHINES. (J7 

speed, 456 revolutions per minute. The propeller 
blades were each of an area of 32*7 square ins., 
and set at an angle of 20 degs. ; pitch, 4±*4 ins. ; 
diameter of propeller, 36J ins. 

The Hoffman flying machine models have been 
produced to imitate the flight of the stork. They 
are of aeroplane principle, motion being produced 
by a screw propeller having two pairs of blades 
placed so that one pair is behind the other. 
For starting purposes the machine stands upon 
hinged supports which automatically fold up to the 
body as soon as flight commences. One of these 
models has wings of 9 ft. span and weighs 7 lbs. 
The wings were also tried in the form of an aero- 
plane divided into several sections, but did not 
prove successful in this arrangement. Steam and 
carbon dioxide engines were used for the motive 
power. The framework weighed about one-sixth 
of the total weight of the entire machine. 

Horatio Phillips* 

An inventor who has displayed much ingenuity 
and engineering skill, in England, is Mr. Horatio 
Phillips, of Wealdstone, Harrow. He has tried 
his ideas by means of an experimental machine 
which is of a larger size than that which might be 
called a model though it has not sufficient power 
to fly with an aeronaut on board. It has actually 
risen by its own contained motive power to a 
height of several feet and through a horizontal 
flight of about 50 yards. The length of the body 



68 FLYING MACHINES. 

of the machine is 25 ft. by 3 ft. in width ; the pro- 
pelling arrangement is a screw 6 ft. 6 ins. diameter, 
driven by a compound steam engine, the boiler 
being carried with the engine upon the machine ; 
and the area of propeller blade surface is 4 J square 
ft. A peculiar screen arrangement of aeroplanes is 
used for lifting and sustaining the machine in its 
flight. This looks like a common Venetian window 
blind, but in fact it is the result of many years of 
experiment and thought, and is the embodiment of 
Mr. Phillips' ideas upon the question of flight by 
means of aeroplanes. The blades are not flat in 
section but concavo-convex, the curves being shaped 
accurately to a definite design based upon the 
results of experiments. The upper side of the 
blade is convex with the maximum curvature 
near the leading edge. The under side is concave, 
but with a small amount of convexity near the 
leading edge. Width of each blade is 1 J ins. only, 
and length 19 ft.; total size of entire frame, 19ft. 
by 8 ft. in depth ; sustaining and lifting surface 
equals 140 square ft. area. Each blade has a 
maximum thickness of one- eighth of an inch. The 
concave side is hollowed to a depth of one- 
sixteenth of an inch, they are made of wood, and 
fixed in a steel frame. "When these blades are 
propelled in a horizontal direction they are really 
moving through a current of air, the velocity of 
which will depend upon the speed at which the 
blades are moved. The air current is deflected in 
an upw r ard direction by contact with the forwarcl 



FLYING MACHINES. 



69 



edge and curves over towards the trailing edg< 
inducing a partial vacuum above the top surface 
of the blade. An air current also passes under 
the blade up into the concave under-surface, pro- 



Fig:, 



*^»:- -«*:} 




Fig. 8. 



g. 16. — Shapes of Sustaining Blades tried by Phillips. 

ducing a pressure against it. The result of the 
combined effects of pressure underneath, and 
vacuum on the top causes the blade to rise and 
exert a lifting effort. This effect is produced by 
each individual blade ; the combined effort of the 



70 



FLYING MACHINES. 



whole number of blades fixed in the frame is the 
total lifting power of the machine. According to 
Mr. Phillips, he has produced a lifting effort by 
this means of nearly 3 lbs. per square foot of blade 
surface. 

The experiments which have enabled Mr. 
Phillips to determine the most efficient form 
of blade were made by him on behalf of the 
Aeronautical Society of Great Britain. He placed 
a variety of shaped w r ood blades in a current of 
air, and measured the lifting power and thrust 
backwards by a suitable apparatus. Fig. 16 
gives an idea of the various blade sections tried. 
In addition, an experiment was made with a wing 
of a rook dried and prepared, so that it could be 
placed in the apparatus and tested as a com- 
parison with the wood shapes. An account of 
these experiments is to be found in Engineering, 
Vol. XL., August 14th, 1885, page 160, from 
which this table of results is taken. 



Form l S}5eed of air 
rorra ' | current. 


Dimensions of 
blade. 


Lift effort. 


Backward 
thrust. 


Plane surface 

Fig. 1 

» 2 

„ 8 


feet per sec. 
89 
60 
48 
44 
44 
89 
27 


ins. ins. 
16 x 5 
16 x 1*25 
16 x 3 
16 x 3 
16 x 5 
16 x 5 
16 x 5 


ozs. 
9 

M 

r# 
M 

»» 


ozs. 

20 

087 
87 
0*87 
087 
0*87 
225 


Book 8 wing- 


39 


0*5 sq. ft. in area 


8 


io 



FLYING MACHINES. 71 

The centre of effort of the surfaces was found 
to be one-third of the breadth from the forward 
end. The under surfaoes of all the shapes are 
hollow, and to obtain the best efficiency from a 
given surface the amount of concavity and con- 
vexity must bear a certain definite proportion to 
the velocity of the air current. 

The actual weight of the flying machine in 
working order was 360 lbs., and it carried a load 
of 56 lbs. in addition. In order that the flight 
could be controlled, the machine was attached to 
a pillar fixed in the ground, by wires, and the 
movement was in a circle of which the pillar was 
the centre. It was not allowed to rise more 
than about three feet from the ground, and was 
steadied by a wheel at the forward end of the 
body which travelled upon a circular track 628 
feet in circumference, contact being maintained 
by a weight of about 17 lbs. pressing the wheel 
in a downward direction. The guide wheel was 
also connected by a wire to the central pillar. 
Speed of propeller about 600 revolutions per 
minute ; the machine not only raising itself but a 
weight of 72 lbs. as well, under various conditions 
of wind. Apparently the sustaining blades give 
best results when they are horizontal. It seems 
that there is a best proportion of lifting surface 
to propelling power. The results obtained were 
not so good when the area of blades was increased 
without any increase of propelling power. Other 
particulars of a trial run are : Speed 40 miles per 



72 



FLYING MACHINES. 



hour ; weight of machine 330 lbs. It flew 1,000 
feet without descending, and lifted a load of 55 
lbs., the lifting planes thus sustaining 2 J lbs. 
(approx.) per square foot of under-surface area. 

Ader. 

From 1882 until 1892 Mr. Ader, a French 
electrician, has constructed in France some flying 
machines apparently intended for purposes of 
warfare. The first one of these weighed 53 lbs., 
and measured 26 feet across the wings, which 




Fig. 17. — Ader's Machine. 

worked with a vibrating movement by muscular 
power. A later model had wings of 54 feet 
measurement across. It weighed 1,100 lbs. and 
five years were spent upon its construction. The 
motor was contained within the body. Some 
amount of secrecy has been observed with regard 
to these machines and the experiments made 
with them, as the money for their construction 
and trials, to a sum of about M'26,000, was provided 
by the Minister of War. The wings were made 
of silk, and though of jointed construction, did 
not vibrate, but served as aeroplanes, propulsion 



FLYING MACHINES. 73 

being effected by two screw propellers having four 
blades each, driven by a steam engine. This 
engine is said to be a triumph of mechanical work 
— four cylinder compound type, weight 70 lbs., 
and to have given 20 to 30 h.-p. ; its parts being 
cut from solid forged steel. Supporting wheels 
are fitted to the body so that the machine can 
travel upon the ground whilst acquiring the 
necessary speed at which the aeroplane wings 
commence to produce a lifting effect. About 20 to 
30 yards of level surface is required. According 
to Mr. Ader he was successful in making the 
machine fly several hundreds of yards, and to rise 
50 or 60 feet into the air. Official trials were 
made at the camp of Satery, but the Minister of 
War does not seem to have considered them 
satisfactory, as no more money was provided, or 
the inventor did not prefer to continue. Parts of 
these machines are preserved in the museum of 
" Arts et Metiers " at Paris. 

Sir Hiram S. Maxim, 

Bemarkable work has been done in England by 
the well-known engineer, Sir Hiram S. Maxim, 
who not only made many experiments with models 
but constructed a steam flying machine of such 
size that engines of 350 h.-p. were fitted to drive 
its screw propellers. Sir Hiram S. Maxim is an 
American by birth, and his earlier work was done 
in the United States, where he received a train- 
ing in mechanical work. In the early days of 



74 FLYING MACHINES. 

electric lighting he was actively engaged in elec- 
trical work, inventing the Maxim incandescent 
lamp, the Maxim dynamo and regulator and arc 
lamps. The invention of his wonderful automatic 
machine gun made his name familiar all over the 
world. 

It might well be anticipated that the inventor 
who could produce an invention requiring such 
skill, perseverance, and originality as that displayed 
in the design of the Maxim automatic machine 
gun would attack the problem of aerial naviga- 
tion in an equally skilful and original manner. 
This has been the case. Sir Hiram Maxim, un- 
like some inventors of airships who attempt to 
produce a perfect machine at the first essay and 
which usually wrecks itself and kills its designer 
on the trial trip, has proceeded to acquire practi- 
cal knowledge by means of captive machines, 
wisely declining to go up in the air on his machine 
until he can control it and know what it is going 
to do. After considering the question for a long 
time, he commenced his experiments in 1889 by 
testing the propelling power of screws in air, 
and the lifting power of aeroplanes adjusted to 
various angles, the apparatus being suspended at 
the end of an arm about 60 ft. in length, and 
which revolved in a circle at varying speeds up to 
90 miles an hour. Having thus acquired a great 
deal of accurate information, he constructed a 
large steam-driven machine — a photo of which is 
given on Plate X — which shows the machine with 



FLYING MACHINES. 75 

all its aeroplanes fixed in position ; in the back- 
ground is the large building erected for housing 
and building it. This machine is a marvel of 
mechanical skill in combining strength, lightness, 
and power, and consists of a platform carrying a 
light framework of steel tubes and wire stays 
which support the aeroplanes and propelling 
machinery ; the latter comprises two compound 
condensing steam engines each having two cranks 
and driving a screw propeller made of wood covered 
with varnished canvas. The propellers are nearly 
18 ft. in diameter and 16 ft. pitch. They run at 
350 to 400 revolutions per minute ; each engine 
gives approximately 175 h.-p. and weighs only 300 
lbs. Steam is suppled from a water tube boiler 
of similar pattern to those of Yarrow and Thorny- 
croft ; this boiler, with its wind cutter, is mounted 
on the platform, and can be clearly seen in the 
illustrations ; the steam pressure is 200 lbs. to 320 
lbs. per sq. in., and firing is by gasoline, burned 
in a large number of jets. Steam can be raised 
100 lbs. in one minute. The weight of the entire 
machine is about 7,000 lbs. ; the width across the 
aeroplanes is, roughly, 120 ft. The experiments 
with this machine were made by running it along 
a railway track laid in Baldwyn's Park, in Kent, 
where Sir Hiram Maxim at that time resided. 
Strong wood guard rails were fixed alongside the 
running rails throughout the entire length of the 
track, and were so situated that the machine 
oould not rise more than a few inches from the 



76 FLYING MACHINES. 

ground. Friction rollers were provided on the 
platform and came into contact with the over- 
hanging portion of the guard rail as soon as the 
aeroplanes lifted to the pre-arranged amount. 
The machine was supported on the running wheels 
by vertical springs, so that it could lift itself ver- 
tically through a short distance without the run- 
ning wheels ever leaving the track ; each spring 
was connected to a recording dynamometer appa- 
ratus so that the amount of rise and lifting power 
could be ascertained. The speed was up to 40 
miles per hour, and the machine was brought to 
rest at the end of the run by means of a series of 
weighted ropes stretched across the track, which 
passed over pulleys and had sufficient slack to 
allow the machines to be checked by their accu- 
mulated drag as they were each picked up in turn. 
On one occasion, when travelling at full speed, 
the lifting power of the aeroplanes was so great 
that the guard rail gave way on one side, the 
machine immediately slewed round breaking the 
guard rail on the other side, and would have gone 
up into the air, but Sir Hiram Maxim, who was 
on board with an assistant, immediately recog- 
nised that an accident had happened and shut off 
steam, the machine coming to the ground a short 
distance to one side of the track. There were 
no marks of the running wheels on the ground 
between the spot where the machine alighted and 
the track, which proved that Sir Hiram Maxim 
had really succeeded in making a flying machine 



FLYING MACHINES. 77 

which would lift itself from the ground by means 
of its self-contained dynamic energy alone. With 
a total of 363 h.-p. 150 are lost in the slip of the 
screw propellers, 80 are expended in merely driv- 
ing the machine through the air, that is by reason 
of air friction, and 133 are effective in producing 
a lifting effort. A thrust of 2,100 lbs. is exerted 
by the screw propellers when the machine is pre- 
vented from moving and 2,000 lbs. when it is in 
flight. The aeroplanes have an angle of 7*25 deg. 
with the horizontal. The problem of aerial flight 
was not yet completely solved ; it was necessary 
to ensure that the machine could be steered, and 
kept on an even keel. Experiments were com- 
menced with model machines in a very ingenious 
manner. The models consisted of cigar-shaped 
bodies carrying aeroplanes and driven by screw 
propellers ; the motive power being obtained from 
the energy stored up in a heavy flywheel pivoted 
in the body of the model and connected to the 
propeller. A high framework was erected, from 
the top of which the models commenced their 
flight which was observed, and the behaviour of 
the steering and balancing arrangements noted. 
The model was held at starting by a clip so that 
it could be instantaneously released, and the pro- 
peller engaged with a claw clutch w T hich was spun 
up to speed by means of a heavy falling weight 
pulling on a cord which passed round multiplying 
wheels. As soon as the propeller and its flywheel 
were spun up to full speed, the model was released 



7b FLYING MACHINES. 

and made its flight. These experiments came to 
an end by the expiration of Sir Hiram Maxim's 
tenure of Baldwyn's Park, and the flying machine 
was dismantled. 

The engines of this machine were made of thin 
sheet steel in almost every part, everything being 
hollow or ribbed ; the propeller shafts were also 
of hollow steel tube, the flanged couplings were 
connected by a large number of very small bolts ; 
the pistons were double-acting. One of these 
engines, together with one of the screw propellers, 
and the complete model of the flying machine 
shown on Plate X, is at the present time to be seen 
in the Machinery Gallery of the Victoria and 
Albert Museum, South Kensington ; also the ex- 
perimental machine used for determining the 
power of the recoil when making the first auto- 
matic Maxim gun. 

Sir Hiram Maxim is now resuming his experi- 
ments, in the hope of producing a successful fly- 
ing machine, but the enormous expense involved 
is a serious obstacle ; his experiments at Baldwyn's 
Park, and the construction of the steam machine, 
cost him more than £20,000 of his own money. 

A considerable amount of information regard- 
ing the details of the propelling machinery, with 
an illustration of the boiler, is given in Engineer- 
ing for August 10th, 1894, Vol. L VIII., page 196, 
and in an earlier number for March 17th, 1893, 
page 226, Sir Hiram Maxim gives some of the 
figures of his trial runs with curves, showing the 



FLYING MACHINKS. (9 

lifting effect produced by the aeroplanes. At a 
speed of 27 miles per hour, the indicators at the 
rear-supporting wheels recorded a lift of nearly 
3,000 lbs., and those at the forward wheels more 
than 2,500 lbs. ; the thrust exerted by the screw 
propellers was 700 lbs. Another diagram records 
a total lift of 6,500 lbs. at 27 miles per hour. 
The area of the main lifting plane is given as 
2,894 square ft. ; that of the small plane 126 
square ft. ; the area of the bottom of the machine, 




Fig. 18. — Pilcher's Soaring Wings. 

140 square ft. A portion of the total lifting 
effect, amounting to 500 lbs., is stated to be due 
to a head wind, which thus assisted to raise the 
machine by its effort upon the aeroplanes ; 600 lbs 
lifting effort was therefore due to the thrust 
exerted by the screw propellers. This thrust at 
full power was 1,960 lbs. 

Percy S. Pilchcr. 

Mr. Percy S. Pilcher achieved some success in 
England with aeroplanes, his experiments extend- 



80 FLYING MACHINES. 

ing over six years, during which he made trials 
with five different patterns. They were all of 
sufficient power to lift a man, and Mr. Pilcher 
made many ascents, in the end meeting with an 
accident which caused his death whilst trying the 
last model, No. 5, which had given best results. 
His aeroplanes (Fig. 18) were in the form of concave 
wings constructed with a cane framework, over 
which was stretched a material known as spinnaker 
silk. A smaller plane w T as fixed as a tail. The 
experimenter was fixed to the machine by his 
elbows. Motive power was produced by a horse 
moving upon the ground and pulling the machine 
by a rope, a losing purchase being provided to 
augment the velocity. At starting, the experi- 
menter ran upon the ground, the aeroplanes lift- 
ing him as soon as the speed became sufficient. 
At this stage the lift would be continued and in- 
creased owing to the pull of the horse, which ran 
whilst the flight was in progress. When the ex- 
perimenter desired to descend he released the rope 
attachment by means of a cord provided for this 
purpose, and soared to the ground by his own 
momentum. It was the intention of Mr. Pilcher 
to afterwards use an oil engine to provide the 
propelling power when perfecting his machine, 
but the fatal accident intervening put an end to 
the experiments. 
Professor Langley. 

An advocate of aeroplane machines is Professor 
Langley, of the United States of America. His 



FLYING MACHINES. 81 

apparatus, constructed in 1903, is capable of 
supporting a man, and has successfully flown a 
distance of three-quarters of a mile. The trials 
took place over the river Potomac, a high float- 
ing structure carrying the machine to favourable 
places for starting. From this elevated position 
at the top of the structure the machine was 
launched upon its flight. In case of accident it 




Fig. 19. — Professor Lang-ley's Machine. 

would fall upon the yielding surface of the water, 
and the wind would be more steady and less 
liable to eddies than if the experiments were con- 
ducted over a stretch of land. The material used 
for the construction of the frame parts is steel, 
and for the aeroplanes silk. Motive power is by 
means of screw propellers approximately 4 ft. in 

F 



82 FLYING MACHINES. 

diameter, running at a speed of 1,000 revolutions 
per minute. The length of the machine is 15 ft. ; 
its weight, 30 lbs. ; its side planes are inclined at 
an angle of 135 degs. to each other ; the plane at 
the rear is to act as a governor (Fig. 19). 

Ernest Archdeacon. 

Although not directly connected with flying 
machines the experiments of Mr. Ernest Arch- 
deacon, the Aero Club of France, should prove 
interesting to workers in aerial navigation. To 
obtain definite data from the performance of air 
propellers, experiments were made with a motor 
cycle having an air propeller mounted in front of 
the handle bars and driven by a 6 h.-p. Buchet 
motor. (Plate XI). As shown on Plate 
XII, the transmission to the horizontal pro- 
peller shaft was through a flat belt. The 
propeller was made of aluminium and further 
lightened by being pierced with a number 
of small holes and the whole surface covered with 
gold beater's skin. The propeller measured 4 ft. 
9 ins. diameter, and ran at 1,100 revolutions with 
an engine speed of 1,500 revolutions per minute. 
The weight of the machine complete is 70 kilo- 
grammes (154 lbs.), and with the rider weighing 
82 kilogrammes T180J lbs.) the machine traversed 
one kilometre at the average speed of 49 miles 
per hour. 

Further experiments have been made by the 
well-known authority, Captain Ferber, with the 



FLYING MACHINES. 83 

car illustrated on Plate XIII working on the same 
principles. The " Buchet " motor of this car 
develops 9 h.-p. and drives two propellers. 

The air propellers have also been tried for the 
propulsion of boats (Plate XIV) and, with a 70 
h.-p. engine, the inventor, M. Trolanini, claims to 
have obtained a speed of 43 J miles per hour. 

Hugh Bastin. 

Many men have essayed to obtain mechanical 
flight by following the wonderful principles evinced 
by Nature in both birds and insects. One of the 
more or less successful inventors in this field is 
Mr. Hugh Bastin, of Clapham, London, who, 
after many years of study and experiment, pro- 
duced a really practical self-contained and self- 
propelled model of a heavier-than-air flying 
machine. The exact details of mechanism have 
not yet been divulged. However, some three 
years ago it was the writer's privilege to have a 
private view of the machine, to see it actually rise 
from the earth without extraneous aid of any 
kind. 

Mr. Bastin' s penchant for natural history helped 
him to a considerable extent in studying the flight 
of birds and insects. The ballooning principle, he 
averred, although not carried out by the strictly 
gas-bag method, is adopted by several species of 
unwinged creatures. It is utilised by spiders, 
caterpillars, etc., for enabling themselves to drift 
in an air current to fresh fields of operation. 



84 FLYING MACHINES. 

Seed-bearing plants also use similar devices. In 
each case, however, a feather structure is provided 
for temporary use, to cause flotation in the air of 
the bodies which in themselves are heavier than 
air. The idea of the apparatus is perfectly ful- 
filled, because the final resting place is immaterial 
and the whole scheme fortuitous. 

Convinced that the ballooning principle was 
lacking in utility where controlled locomotion was 
required, Mr. . Bastin put the dirigible balloon 
entirely out of court. He considered that it was 
a useless study. Furthermore, he concluded that 
in the matter of fixed aeroplanes Nature gave no 
useful model to man, and that for controlled aerial 
navigation the adoption of the aeroplane was 
another case of misdirected energy and profitless 
expenditure. Nature, he said, from the time of 
its earliest efforts up to the present time, has used 
wings and wings only for transporting a heavy 
body in the air from a place of rest to any other 
predetermined place with its own volition, through 
currents of air varying in magnitude and direction. 

The secret of the birds always had a charm for 
him, and, in deciding to follow Nature's plan, he 
first considered the structure of the wing as used 
by birds, insects, butterflies, and the like. There 
are, he says, wings of feathers, of membrane, 
wings articulated and wings not articulated ; some 
fixed at right angles to the body, and others 
adapted for folding. In all cases the same prin- 
ciple of construction was apparent, viz., a rigid 



FLYING MACHINES. 



SI 



front and a flexible back. The front rigid bar is 
used as a central pivot for vibrating propeller, the 
springy back part bending to the angle to form 
the same. 

The front bar A is pivoted at the shoulder B 
(see Fig. 20, a membranous wing) and is vibrated 
vertically. The flexible part C, in meeting the 




Fig. 20a — Bastin's Machine — The Wing 3. 




Fig. 20b. — Showing the various Amplitudes of the Beat. 

air, is driven out of its plane both on the up and 
down motions (see Pig. 21), thus causing the air 
to press the wing or propeller forward. The 
direction of movement is at right angles to the 
direction of beat, and the body, of course, al- 
ways forward. This happens whether the wing 
covering is of membrane or of feathers. Thus 
it will be seen that the wings are specially 
constructed propellers working on a well-known 



86 FLYING MACHINES. 

principle, so far as their direct action on the 
air is concerned, and form a truly perfect me- 
chanical apparatus. 

To operate these wings so as to obtain con- 
trolled flight requires other motions besides those 
described by the foregoing. The amplitude of the 
beat is varied by the bird according to the speed 
and direction intended. When the bird deeires to 
turn, one wing may be given a greater beat. 
Normally, for a horizontal direction of travel the 
wings beat vertically ; but the plane of the beat 
may be varied at will for upward or downward 
flight, the mechanical power being, as before 
shown, always applied in a direction at right 
angles to the direction of flight. The normal 
position of the wing when outspread, but not 
moving, is parallel to the horizontal plane, but 
for gliding upwards or downwards, using the wing 
as a pure aeroplane, this position may be changed, 
and the plane curved to suit the direction of flight 
required. 

Mr. Bastin's machines have never progressed 
beyond the model stage, however. His work has 
been entirely satisfactory as far as it has gone, 
and the above statements as to the action of the 
wing seem to be borne out perfectly by the model. 
The first model was made before the advent of 
the petrol motor. It had a single pair of wings 
actuated by a very light but powerful steam 
engine. The weight of the boiler, the fuel, and 
water supply was too much for the machine, and, 



FLYING MACHINES. 



R7 



besides, was not at all convenient for the purpose. 
The present model is shown in the accompany- 
ing photograph (Plate XX), and is a much more 
practical machine. It has a double set of wings to 



>v errien 



w/tfC 




a ncjle due 
Y" l~0 flexible 
^back of wina 



l'n+ Action of ff/yhf; 
the resultant or the 
■«^™"" ' movement <znd 



dncjle of the 61a de 
(Xqainst the <ztr 



A Upward beat 
j| of wine 




Resultant is forward 
movement <3,<jain 

Fig. 21. — Bastin's Experiments. 

Two diagrams snowing the action of a bird's wing. A is the rigid front and 

C the outer edge of the flexible posterior portion of the wing. 

give it better fore and aft stability, and has a small 
petrol engine for power supply. Each wing is at- 
tached to a trunnion, which can turn, and so alter 
the plane of the beat. Mechanism is also provided 



88 FLYING MACHINES. 

for altering the amplitude of the beat. The body 
of the model is 44 ins. long and 12 ins. in dia- 
meter, and the total spread of the wings from tip 
to tip is 84 ins. The writer, as already men- 
tioned, was present at a private trial some three 
years ago, when, without external aid, the model* 
which is very weighty, scaling certainly not under 
40 lbs., traversed the specially prepared "run," 
rising from the surface about half way along. 
The stopping of the engine (the operator pulling 
the string which trailed from the model) brought 
the machine heavily to the ground. Nothing but 
the risk of serious damage, and the lack of funds 
which would be required to make such damage 
good, has, it is understood, prevented a more 
extended trial of its powers. 

Bleriot - Voisin. 

The earlier Bleriot-Voisin Aeroplane with which 
experiments were made on Lake Enghein, con- 
sisted of two box aeroplanes of elliptical shape 
placed several feet apart and supported on the 
surface of the water by hollow floats. (Plate XV) . 

The total length of the "box planes" was 6 
metres (19 ft. 8 ins.) and the w r idth of the con- 
tinuous surface 1J metres (4 ft. 11 ins.) The 
extremities and underside of the lower aeroplanes 
being more or less inefficient, the total lifting 
surface has been caluculated as 60 square metres 
(645*6 square feet). 

The purpose of the arrangement was to obtain 







PLATE XVII.— The Santos DumontoAeropIane "No. 14 bis." 
A View o! the Engine, with M. Santos Dutnont in the Car. 



J£j»- Facing page 88. 







> 
X 

cu 

H 
< 

-J 

Q. 



PLATE XX. 




Model of Mr. Bastin's Flying Machine. 




Experiments with an Archdeacon Aeroplane. 



PLYING MACHINES. 89 

definite data as to the lifting power and also ex- 
perience in controlling the aeroplane in a relatively 
safe manner. No success, however, has been 
reported. Subsequently the leading elliptical box 
plane was discarded in favour of a pair of horizontal 
superimposed surfaces with a similar but smaller 
set of guide aeroplanes projecting out in front of 
all. This set was hinged horizontally so that it 
could be tipped up or down in the usual way. 

For driving the arrangement a 24 h.-p. 
Antoinette petrol motor was employed. The 
motor actuated two wooden propellers running at 
600 revolutions per minute. 

A similar, if not the same, machine was fitted up 
on a suitable carriage to roll over the surface of 
the ground. When tried in Paris the machine did 
not rise in the air although a good speed was ob- 
tained. This was proved by the fact that when it 
came to a ditch it was not supporting itself in the 
air but fell into the rut in the ground and the 
carriage and framework were badly smashed. 

Santos Dumont. 

When it was reported, early in 1906, that M. 
Santos Dumont, the intrepid aeronaut whose 
work in connection with dirigible balloons has 
been summarised in the foregoing chapters, was 
giving up further efforts in that direction and was 
about to build a heavier than air machine, it 
was not generally thought that he would be so 
successful with the first machine of the new type. 



90 FLYING MACHINES. 

The machine with which Santos Dumont ob- 
tained so large a measure of success in the fall 
of 1906, is shown in the accompanying photo- 
graphs. " No. 1 4 bis " (Plate XVI) , is constructed 
on the superposed aeroplane method, the two sets 
of aeroplanes being of cellular form and placed at 
a slight angle to the horizontal as shown. In 
front of the aeronaut's platform protudes a long 
"girder," at the end of which is a box rudder 
which can be moved on a horizontal axis from the 
platform and gives the machine a rising or falling 
movement. 

The position of the engine will be seen in the 
photograph (Plate XVII) . An Antoinette motor 
with eight inclined cylinders is used giving 50 h.-p. 
and driving an aluminium screw propeller, 6 ft. 
diameter, having 2 blades. The speed of the 
engine is 1,500 revolutions per minute. The span 
of the wings is 12 metres (39 ft. 4 ins.,) and the 
total lifting surface 80 square metres (860 square 
ft.) The weight of the machine, without the 
distinguished operator, is 160 kilogrammes 
(352 lbs.) The engine weighs only 72 kilogrammes 
which works out at 3*16 lbs. per h.-p. The experi- 
ments with this machine range from July to the 
end of the summer. The earlier trials at Bagatelle, 
Paris, Santos Dumont drove the machine across 
the field at a speed of 40 kilometres per hour (24f 
miles per hour), with the propeller running at 
approximately 1,000 revolutions per minute, for 
over 100 metres. Towards the end of the run 



FLYING MACHINES. 91 

the aeronaut tipped the guide aeroplane slightly 
and the two front wheels of the carriage (it was 
then fitted with three wheels, as Plate XVII. rose 
off the ground first ; then the rear wheel left terra 
firma and the machine soared for a distance of 16 
to 20 feet. In striking the ground the machine 
was badly damaged. 

Later, M. Santos Dumont accomplished free 
flight for fully 60 metres (nearly 200 feet,) at a 
height of 8 to 8 feet above the ground ; Plate 
XVII showing him starting the ascent. 

Several trials had been made during the day 
(October 23rd,) but about half past four, after 
some slight preparations had been made, he started 
off at about 25 miles per hour and soared the 
distance above mentioned. It appears that the 
aeronaut could have gone further but he became 
rather nervous, owing it is said to a slight rolling 
tendency and the presence of people ahead ; he 
then cut off the ignition and the machine came to 
earth. It did not strike the ground heavily, only 
slightly buckling the carriage wheels. 

Santos Dumont's machine is not provided with 
a rear vertical rudder and the rolling tendency 
may have something to do with this. As a 
result of the flight of October 23rd the Aero 
Club of France, although the distance was not 
accurately measured, awarded him the Archdeacon 
Cup, as there was no doubt that his " No. 14 bis " 
actually flew for more than the allotted distance 
of 25 metres (82 feet). 



92 PLYING MACHINES. 

The brilliant success achieved with this machine 
has decided M. Santos Dumont to build another 
aeroplane, and he declares his intention to make 
the lifting surfaces of wood instead of canvas. 
Owing to the publicity of the grounds at Bagatelle, 
he will also conduct further experiments at St. 
Cyr, by permission of the military authorities. 

In the new machine he proposes to use a single 
supporting wheel for the carriage and to increase 
the power to 100 h.-p., at same time reducing the 
width of the wings and therefore the supporting 
area. 

Count de la Vaulx. 

As already mentioned, Count de la Vaulx, the 
owner of the dirigible described on pages 47 
and 48, about the time of M. Santos Duniont's 
brilliant achievement with his "No. 14 bis" 
became converted to the aeroplane as the better 
device for solving the problem of aerial flight. In 
pursuance of this new idea he is at the present time 
building, in conjunction with Messrs. Tatin and 
Maurice Mallet, at the latter's establishment in 
Paris, an aeroplane on the plan shown in Fig. 22. 

As will be seen, the machine differs in most of 
its attributes to the box aeroplane of Santos 
Dumont. It is to have large outspread planes 
like the wings of a bird. Two propellers (s) are 
to be used, which will rotate in opposite direc- 
tions, and be driven by a 50 h.-p. Antoinette 
motor, as specially made for aerial purposes. 



FLYING MACHINES. 



93 



The car containing the mechanism forms the 
body of the machine and is below the centre 
plane AP. The lateral aeroplanes AP 1 and AP 2 
are continued outwards from the centre plane. 

Behind, at some distance from the car, will be 
fixed the aeroplane forming the tail (T), hinged 
to which will be the horizontal rudder H. The 
vertical rudder (E), which will be used to control 
the lateral movement of the machine, is to be 




Fig. 22. — A Plan of the New de la Vaulx Aeroplane. 

placed below the tail and worked by cords C from 
the nacelle. 

The designers are endeavouring in this machine 
to reduce the ineffective surfaces to a minimum, 
with a view to obtaining a higher speed and 
greater lifting capacity with a lower expenditure 
of motive power than that which has been hereto- 
fore accomplished. The only objection that may 
be raised to this desire is the fact that it may, for 



94 FLYING MACHINES. 

the present at all events, be better to sacrifice 
efficiency for the sake of stability and strength, 
and, when some degree of success has been 
obtained, to then turn every attention to the 
modification of those details which will result 
in obtaining an increased mechanical efficiency 
from the machine as a whole. 

Vuia. 

M. Vuia towards the end of 1906 carried out 
some experiments at Bagatelle, in France, with 
the machine shown in the photograph. (Plate 
XVIII). The device is fitted with two wide- 
spreading horizontal wings operated by a 
carbonic acid motor, and, for the purpose of 
increasing the speed of the machine, a two- 
bladed propeller is mounted in the front. 
Slight accidents prevented any satisfactory results 
being obtained, but the inventor anticipates that 
he will be able to leave the ground and fly for a 
longer distance than that at the time had been 
covered by M. Santos Dumont with his " 14 bis." 

Orville and Wilbur Wright. 

For some time past reports have reached 
England of wonderful successes obtained by 
the brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright, of Day- 
ton, Ohio, U.S.A., with an aeroplane machine. 
The earlier experiments of these inventors were 
restricted to glides with controllable aeroplanes 
(Fig. 23) which carried the operator and were 
started from eminences. 



FLYING MACHINES. 



95 



With a motor-driven aeroplane, of which our 
sketch is said to be a true representation, weigh- 
ing 925 lbs., Messrs. Wright claim the following- 
successes : — 

1905. 
Sept. 26. — 11£ miles' flight in 18 mins. 9 sees. 
.. 29.— 12 „ „ 19 ,, 55 



„ 30.— 12 
Oct. 3.— 15i 
„ 4.— 20| 

5.— 241 



17 
25 

33 

38 



15 

5 
17 



Aeroplane 




Movable 
Guide pfone* 
" in /rant 



Rudder -S^** x Lower Aeroplane 

Fig. 23. — A diagram of the Wright Gliding Aeroplane. 

Mr. Chanute, a well-known authority, also in- 
dependently reports that he witnessed a flight of 
1,377 feet in 23f seconds in 1904, the conditions 
prevailing being a wind running at about six miles 
per hour. After having travelled about 500 feet, 
a gust of wind struck the aeroplane, tilting it in 
the air, and Mr. Orville Wright, not being able to 
preserve the equilibrium, alighted by running 
with the wind instead of against it as was usual. 
The machine was slightly damaged. 



96 FLYING MACHINES. 

A leading French automobile journal sent a 
representative to America to investigate the claims 
of the brothers Wright ; but the machine had 
at that time been taken to pieces for altera- 
tions. Full details of the apparatus are not 
to hand owing, it is said, to the desire for 
secrecy on the part of the experimenters. More 
recent reports say that they are engaged upon a 
new machine with a lighter engine, but during 
1906 no further records have been made. 

Reviewing the various statements appearing in 
the press and elsewhere, one feels almost obliged 
to pass over the work of the Wright brothers in 
favour of the well-authenticated and remarkable 
performances of M. Santos Dumont in Paris, more 
particularly as full details of the machine with 
which the records claimed were made do not 
appear to be forthcoming. 

T. W. Clarke. 

During the past year or so experiments have 
been made with aeroplanes, built after the pattern 
of those used by Messrs. Wright, by several well- 
known aeronauts in France and England. Mr. 
T. W. Clarke, A.M.I.C.E., tried a machine at 
Alder shot in which the top aeroplane (or " aero- 
curve," the surfaces being curved with the concave 
side underneath) was longer than the lower one, 
and the tail consisted of two vertical planes with 
horizontal surfaces projecting outwards therefrom 
near to the top. The trials were made with the 



FLYING MACHINES. 97 

aeroplane used as a kite with three guy ropes. 
During the time Mr. Clarke was up in the machine 
the two side guy ropes were never more than 
slacked off, and naturally nothing but a certain 
amount of experience in handling the machine 
seems to have been gained. The main aeroplanes 
were 39 ft. and 31 ft. long by 63 ins. wide, with 
the front horizontal guide plane and the vertical 
rudders being each about 10 ft. fore and aft of the 
main surfaces. 

Archdeacon. 

M. Archdeacon, the well-known aeronaut of 
Paris, built an aeroplane of the Wright pattern, 
specially designed for gliding experiments, in 
1903-4. The general construction of the machine 
will be gathered from the photographs on 
Plates XIX and XX. It had the forward 
movable plane to control the vertical move- 
ments and the usual rudder at the rear. 
When tried at Merlimont sand-dunes the glides 
did not exceed 25 metres (82 ft.) in length, and 
considerable trouble was experienced in drilling 
the attendants. It was found that they had to 
let go all at the same moment, otherwise the ex- 
periment failed. M. Archdeacon also carried out 
some trials with aeroplanes supported on the 
surface of the water in a similar manner to that 
adopted by M. Bleriot on Lake Enghein. No 
motive power, however, was provided on the aero- 
plane, but the machine was towed along by a 



98 FLYING MACHINES. 

motor boat as shown in the photograph (Plate 

XXI). 

Bellamy. 

Mons. Bellamy, who has declared his intention 
to compete for the Daily Mail prize, has recently 
been engaged upon stability trials with an aero- 
plane supported from a captive balloon. The 
apparatus consists of a pair of double-decked 
aeroplanes. Beside the horizontal rudder or 
guide plane forward, and the vertical rudder 
in the rear aeroplane, a pair of trian- 
gular " sails," placed at an angle, are fixed be- 
tween the two sets of aeroplanes. The front 
planes measure 32 ft. 10 ins. by 9 ft. wide, the 
rear planes being of the same width but only 23 ft. 
long. The two sets are placed 33 ft. apart. A 
50 h.-p. engine, driving the propellers by chains, 
is employed. Mons. Bellamy claims to have al- 
ready obtained free flight for several hundred yards, 
but although he says he can control the height of 
the machine from the ground, the turning or 
lateral steering of the machine is a problem he has 
yet to solve. 

Henri Kapfera. 

Henri Kapfera has designed an aeroplane, which 
is shown on Plate XXII, having a breadth of 11 
metres (36 ft.) across the upper plane and 10 
metres (32'8ft.) across the lower plane, the length 
of the surface is 1J metres (4*92 ft.) in each case, 



FLYING MACHINES. 99 

A double horizontal rudder is placed in front, 
being connected to the body of the machine by 
an enclosed girder which tapers to a point in the 
forward direction. Two smaller aeroplanes, one 
above the other, are fixed at the rear, each four 
metres (13 ft.) in breadth by 1J metres in 
length ; vertical screens divide them into two 
rectangular parts as shown in the photograph. 
It is driven by a 24 h.-p. Buchet Motor, and a 
two-bladed propeller. Total aeroplane surface is 
42 square metres (452 square feet). According to 
accounts of this machine, the rear aeroplanes are 
supposed to increase the horizontal stability, and 
the motive power is to be increased to 50 h.-p. 
When starting the machine runs upon the wheels 
shown in the photograph to obtain initial speed. 

Dufuax. 

Many inventors have pinned their faith to the 
horizontal-running screw propeller as a means of 
overcoming the force of gravity. There appears 
some doubt, however, as to whether or no the 
lifting power of these screws would be more or 
less destroyed when the propelling screws are 
brought into action and the machine is made to 
travel in a horizontal direction. Then there is 
the question of the efficiency of screw propellers 
for lifting purposes. 

With regard to the latter point, Mons. Dufuax 
demonstrated at St. Cloud, in 1905, with a machine 
consisting of a tubular frame work 16 ft. long, 

LOFC. 



100 FLYING MACHINES. 

having a pair of propellers revolving in opposite 
directions at each end of the machine. A 3 h.-p. 
petrol motor was employed and the total weight 
lifted was 51 lbs., which is 17 lbs. per unit h.-p. 
A comparison of the power required for this 
machine may be made with the results ob- 
tained by the use of aeroplanes (see pages 67 to 
72. 
Vilia and Alvarez. 

This machme somewhat resembles that tried at 
Hendon in 1904, by Senor Alvarez, of Brazil, 
The latter was a " winged " aeroplane which was 
provided with two propellers and a vertical tail 
rudder. When tried it had no passenger aboard 
but was dropped by an automatic device from a 
balloon at an altitude of 3,000 ft. The wings 
were 40 ft. from tip to tip and the weight of the 
machine 150 lbs. When released it made a dive 
earthwards but the rudders righted it and, on an 
even keel, it glided for about a mile, coming to 
rest without appreciable damage. The motor was 
only a 2 h.-p. one and worked the two 5 ft. pro- 
pellers at about 175 revolutions per minute. 

Hutchinson, Frost, and D'Esterre. 

In considering the application of the methods 
by which birds and insects fly through the air, we 
must not forget the experiments of Dr. Hutchinson 
and Messrs. E. P. Frost and D'Esterre with 
winged machines. 

In his earlier experiments Mr, Frost was not 



FLYING MACHINES. 101 

able to prove his theories, owing to the defects in 
the mechanism supplying the motive power. 
Later, however, these gentlemen were successful 
with an apparatus using goose wings. The 
41 model " was slung on the end of a balanced 
pole, the end of which, after the manner of the 
Phillip's device, could travel in a circular path 
through the air with very little resistance. 

The two wings had a total area of 3 square ft., 
and were flapped in synchronism by a small electro 
motor. The apparatus was slung from a spring 
balance attached to the end of the pole. 

On experiment there was a good deal of move- 
ment due to the reaction of the beat of the wings 
on the body. However, there was a distinct forward 
movement owing to the flexion of the posterior 
portions of the wings. This vertical oscillation, 
however, was successfully damped by means of a 
tail and a steadier flight obtained. 

The flaps were made at about 300 to 400 per 
minute and, with the one-tenth h.-p. motor used a 
maximum lift of 5 lbs. was obtained. The weight 
of the apparatus was 27 lbs. and the maximum 
forward speed obtained was approximately 5 miles 
per hour. 

A larger apparatus was afterwards made, the 
wings and mechanism being mounted on a frame 
running on bicycle wheels. The wings were 
artificial structures and provided a total area of 
60 square ft. and an outspread of 20 ft. The total 
weight of the machine was 232 lbs. 



102 FLYING MACHINES. 

A 3 h.-p. petrol motor was employed to drive 
the wings, and to store up energy on the rip stroke 
of the wings, elastic bands were used to give 
out their potential energy during every downward 
flap. In this way the load on the engine was 
rendered more constant. The frame was provided 
with devices to show the lifting power and for- 
ward movements of the machine, and at about 100 
flaps per minute the whole arrangement was 
lifted 2 ft. off its special track. 

From the information published by , Dr. 
Hutchinson, he not only agrees that the flexion of 
the posterior portion of the wing gives a forward 
movement (at right angles to the direction of the 
beat, see Figs. 20a and 21), but he contends that 
the structure of the bird's wing provides for a 
valvular action, the air passing through the feathers 
on the upward stroke. That is, the wing is so 
made and shaped that it encounters a greater re- 
sistance on the down stroke than on the up. 



CHAPTEK IV. 



The Aet of Flying. 



If the designer and maker of a machine in- 
tended to navigate the air was at one time certain 
to be looked upon as at least to some extent want- 
ing in mental balance, the person who actually 
tried to fly with such an apparatus was decidedly 
regarded as being hopelessly mad. At the present 
day an experimenter can point to the names 
of such men as Chanute, Langley, Lilienthal, 
Maxim, Pilcher, and Santos Dumont, men of 
scientific mind, engineering ability, and intelli- 
gence of a very high order. Their experiments 
are examples of sound, logical reasoning, con- 
ducted with great care ; and though two of them 
unhappily met with fatal accidents whilst practis- 
ing the art of flying, they had foreseen that such 
results would occur under certain conditions, and 
were taking a reasonable risk. The fact remains 
that these men have made many experimental 
flights with safety, and those who follow will be 
not only justified but wise in giving careful con- 
sideration to the methods adopted by preceding 
exponents of man flight. Sir Hiram Maxim, as 
the account of his work on record shows, could 
have flown up into the air upon his machine, but, 
as he had not solved the question of maintaining 



104 FLYING MACHINES. 

equilibrium and steering, he prevented it from 
rising beyond a certain limited amount. In this 
way he was able to make trial flights with absolute 
safety and to acquire a considerable amount of 
information. Horatio Phillips, with confidence 
in his ideas based upon much accurate experi- 
mental work, preferred to confine his machine to 
a limited amount of rise, so that he could observe 
its action with safety. Yet more recently M. 
Santos Dumont, intrepid as he is, acted with 
extreme caution when he took his remarkable 
flight upon the "No. 14 bis " machine. 

Otto Lilienthal practised so much with his soar- 
ing wing apparatus that he came to regard his 
trials as a sport, and it may be that this idea may 
actually come to be an existing fact. It is a 
question of perfecting the means and acquiring 
the art. The primary thing to do is to keep near 
to the ground, no matter whether the flight is 
made by means of a machine propelled by engine 
power or with supporting planes lifting by virtue 
of the soaring or gliding principle. The ex- 
perience gained will not necessarily enable the 
person to take flights of high altitude. Lilienthal, 
however, considered that soaring and flying near 
the ground is much more difficult than at high 
altitudes, because the wind frequently moves in 
eddies, due to the hollows and elevations of the 
earth's surface. Santos Dumont advises the 
aeronaut to keep close to the earth, he does not 
regard the airship as in its place at great heights. 



THE ART OF FLYING. 105 

Airships or flying machines of even modest size 
propelled by engine power are very costly things 
to build and try if they are to lift the experimenter 
from the ground. Soaring apparatus, however, is 
comparatively cheap to construct and try. Mr. 
Hargraves has also shown that excellent flying 
models can be made at trifling expense, and he 
lays much stress upon this point in the accounts 
which he gives of his work to the New South 
Wales Eoyal Society. Wood, elastic, canvas, 
whalebone, cord, tin cans, and wire for engine 
cylinders and gear appear to be the kind of 
materials which are required, together with a very 
moderate equipment of tools. He proceeded with 
the idea that every model was of some value. 
Though it had not been a success in flying, it 
would be a record of experiment. 

Lilienthal advises experimenters practising with 
soaring apparatus attached to the body to make 
trials with small wings at first and only in moderate 
winds. He says that when soaring with only 86 
square ft. of sustaining wing surface he was tossed 
up into the air upon several occasions. This wing 
area had previously been 107 square ft., but had 
been reduced by trials. He advises that the flyer 
can release himself at once from the apparatus in 
case of need ; that is, if he finds the wind taking 
control and the wings about to be thrown upwards 
in a dangerous manner, he can let go and save 
himself from a disaster. It is also not safe to 
make trials if the wind has a velocity of over 23 



106 FLYING MACHINES. 

miles per hour unless sufficient skill in soaring has 
been attained by practice. In his account he 
says : "I never make the spread of wing greater 
than 23 ft., so that I can restore equilibrium by 
a simple change of centre of gravity." The wing 
breadth should be limited, so that this transfer of 
centre of gravity can be instantly effected so far 
backwards and forwards as to meet the action of 
the supporting air resistance to the limit of its 
movement. It should not be more than 8*2 ft., 
and will give a total area of 151 square ft., suffi- 
cient to sustain the weight of an average man ; 
the weight of these wings will be 44 lbs. approxi- 
mately. 

In making a flight, the experimenter should not 
merely trust himself, like an inert thing, to the 
caprice of the wind, but try to exert a dominating 
and intelligent influence to control his apparatus. 
For example, if one wing is rising by the effect of 
the air current, he should move his legs towards 
it and keep it down. The natural tendency would 
be to allow the legs to hang towards the falling 
wing ; but this is just the wrong action, as it 
would contribute to upsetting the equilibrium of 
the apparatus. To quote Lilienthal : "It does 
not take very long before it is quite a matter of 
indifference whether we are gliding along 6 feet 
or 65 feet above the ground ; we feel how safely 
the air is carrying us." " Soon we pass over 
ravines as high as houses, and sail for several 
hundred metres through the air without any 



THE ABT OF FLYING. 107 

danger, parrying the force of the wind at every 
movement." 

Mr. Pilcher leaves the following advice in the 
use of aeroplanes : " Keep the position of the 
aeroplanes low, not much higher than the common 
centre of gravity. If they are placed high, the 
tendency is for them to tilt the machine. The 
changes of the wind will act more quickly upon 
the aeroplanes than upon the heavier body. 

In the United States, Mr. A. Chanute, an 
engineer, has given a great deal of attention to 
soaring machines. He appears to favour aero- 
plane wings placed over one another, and gives 
them the adjusting movement instead of moving 
the body of the experimenter like Lilienthal and 
Pilcher. His assistants have carried out some 
thousand trial flights under his direction without 
accident. The proportions of wing-sustaining 
surface used are § square foot per pound weight ; 
speed of flight, 22 miles per hour ; calculated 
sustaining effort, 89 lbs. per horse-power effort of 
the wind and gravity. Mr. Chanute, in an illus- 
trated account given in Cassier's Magazine for 
June, 1901, states the underlying principle of 
maintaining equilibrium in the air to be this : 
that the centre of pressure shall at all times be 
upon the same vertical line as the centre of 
gravity, due to the weight of the apparatus. In 
calm air this is fairly secure, but in a wind the 
centre of pressure is constantly moved. 

The centre of gravity may be shifted backwards 



108 FLYING MACHINES. 

and forwards to coincide again with the vertical 
line passing through the new centre of pressure. 
Lilienthal and Pilcher accomplished this by adjust- 
ing their personal weight to new positions as re- 
quired at the moment. As an alternative, the 
centre of pressure may be adjusted into a vertical 
line with a fixed centre of gravity by altering the 
angle of incidence or by shifting the position of 
the sustaining surfaces. These latter methods 
have been tried by Chanute in three different 
ways: 1. By fixing a horizontal tail (Penaud 
pattern) at an angle to the sustaining surfaces. 
This strikes the air with its upper or lower 
surface, alters the angle of incidence of the 
wings, and therefore alters the centre of pressure. 
2. The wings pivoted at their roots, so that they 
can move horizontally. The arrangement is such 
that the impinging air shall automatically alter 
the angle of incidence and therefore adjust the 
centre of pressure. 3. The surfaces hinged so as 
to rock in a vertical direction, and arranged so 
that the impinging air automatically shifts the 
angle of incidence, and by this will adjust the 
centre of pressure. The last method is believed 
to be preferable ; but Mr. Chanute says that one 
cannot be sure, as all the adjustments are very 
delicate. In his opinion the important condition 
is that the man shall remain staionary, and it will 
be advisable to make use of about one square foot 
of sustaining surface per pound to be lifted until 
the problem of maintaining equilibrium is solved. 



THE ART OF FLYING. 109 

This means speeds of about 20 to 25 miles 
per hour to make for safety when reaching the 
ground. 

Mr. C. E. Duryea proposes that safety in ex- 
periments with large flying machines shall be 
promoted by suspending them, during the pre- 
liminary trials, from captive balloons. 

Mr. L. P. Mouillard makes some rational re- 
marks entitled " A Programme for Safe Experi- 
menting/ ' He also advocates the acquirement of 
skill, as in swimming, cycling, and so on, and says 
that the one great element of success is to take 
no chances of accidents. The problem will be 
solved by a timid man, almost a coward, but one 
who is also reflective and ingenious, who will 
accumulate in his favour all the elements of 
success, and eliminate carefully every element of 
accident (Proceedings of the International Con- 
ference on Aerial Navigation, 1893). Lilienthal 
states that he found the management of his 
apparatus become very difficult when the wind 
velocity exceeded 11 to 13 miles per hour, and 
advises experimenters not to leave the ground 
until they have become expert. He also always 
faced the wind so as to obtain better control. 
This means the equivalent of the well-known 
caution to would-be swimmers, " Don't go into 
deep water until you can swim." If you are 
practising to fly, don't let the wings take you up 
upon the wind more than a few feet from the 
ground until you have the necessary skill to 



110 FLYING MACHINES. 

manage the apparatus and adjust it to the vary- 
ing velocities and directions of the air currents. 
Most certainly don't take your wings up to a 
height and launch out into the air as a preliminary 
trip. 



CHAPTEE V. 



Flying Machines op the Ftjtube, 



Like other appliances, flying machines will in 
their design, construction, and use follow a course 
of development. Those which achieve the 
first real success and are put to some useful 
purpose will seem clumsy and inefficient to the 
designers of machines at a time when, say, 50 
years of progress and use have passed. Compare 
a modern bicycle with those made 30 years ago, 
and note the improvement in design and construc- 
tion. A story has been told of an English en- 
gineer, a bicycle rider, who went to reside in the 
East during the early cycle days. Missing his 
favourite recreation, he decided to try and make a 
bicycle, even if a crude one, so that he could have 
some rides. The native mechanic, however, to 
whom he explained his design, absolutely refused 
to have anything to do with it. A machine with 
three wheels or four wheels he would make, but 
one having two wheels placed one behind the 
other was the idea of a madman. It would not 
keep upright, and he would not waste his time 
upon such a thing. The ancient Briton, when he 
launched his boat upon the water, probably re- 
garded it as about the limit of naval architecture, 
yet from the same shores the thing which is called 



112 PLYING MACHINES. 

an Atlantic liner to-day carries passengers by the 
thousand to shores unknown to those early navi- 
gators. From the primitive boat to the modern 
steamship, how many successive improvements in 
design and construction exist ! Can we say finality 
is reached ? 

The reasonable way to try and form some idea 
of what future flying machines will be like is to 
consider the results already obtained and the 
opinions expressed by those who have made ex- 
periments bearing upon the subject. In both of 
the principles available, namely, that of buoyancy, 
as exemplified by balloons and that of machines 
heavier than air, as exemplified by aeroplanes, a 
great deal of work has been accomplished, and 
each is still faced with difficulties. The exponents 
of either type can advance arguments to show that 
the other is impracticable. Sir Hiram Maxim 
has stated that it is not possible to construct a 
balloon strong enough to stand a speed of 15 miles 
per hour against a wind, as it would be forced out 
of shape and torn to pieces. But has the art of 
balloon construction reached finality ? Count 
Zepperlin endeavoured to maintain the shape of 
his balloon by the use of an enveloping frame- 
work which enclosed the balloon proper, and which 
was in its turn surrounded by an envelope suffi- 
ciently large to leave an air space between. The 
resistance to the balloon offered by the opposing 
air increases enormously as the speed is increased. 
Double the speed does not meajx double the r§- 



5 


■B 


I 


r 
> 


i 


H 


** 


CD 


h 


X 


a 


X 



t. > 



» 3 

3 I 

a i 

2 ' 

" 8. 



iiPf : 




FLYING MACHINES OP THE FUTURE. 113 

sistance, but a great deal more ; in fact it increases 
as the cube of the speed. It is, therefore, of great 
importance to shape the balloon so that it will 
offer a minimum amount of resistance to the air. 
According to Chanute, it can be reduced to 12 per 
cent, of that which would be offered by a disc 
having a diameter equal to that of the largest 
cross section of the balloon. Some experts agree 
that a speed of about 44 miles per hour is possible. 
With regard to aeroplanes, Sir Hiram Maxim 
obtained a lift 18 times as great as the drift with 
small wood planes, but found the efficiency de- 
creased when he made large planes of a flexible 
material. A wood plane will carry more than 
100 lbs. of weight per horse-power used to drive 
it, but the large planes made of flexible material 
stretched upon a frame did not carry more than 
40 lbs. per horse-power. Professor Langley 
obtained a similar kind of result, his small planes 
made of wood or metal lifting a greater weight for 
the driving power expended than large planes 
made of stretched paper. The loss of lifting 
power seems to be due to the less rigid surface 
not retaining its shape, Therefore aeroplanes, to 
give the best obtainable lifting efficiency, should 
be inflexible. In his experiments with small sizes 
and weights, Langley's aeroplanes propelled by 
screws carried at the rate of 250 lbs. per horse- 
power. The real weight used was only a few 
pounds, so that, according to the preceding state- 
ments, this efficiency would not be maintained 

H 



114 FLYING MACHINES. 

with large planes unless they could he made of 
some absolutely rigid material. Regarding weight 
lifted per unit of area, according to Maxim more 
than 3 lbs. can be lifted per square foot of surface 
if well designed, his planes having a width of 
13 ins. and length of 6 ft. carried 8 lbs. per square 
foot of surface. He also finds that when a large 
flat plane is used the whole surface does not do 
equal work. Most of the lifting is done by the 
forward portion, and the plane must be curved to 
an increasing angle if each part of the surface is 
to do a fair share of the work, again increasing 
the amount of driving power required. When 
several aeroplanes are used one behind the other 
a similar result takes place — the leading plane 
does the greater part of the work, for the reason 
that it works in air which has not been disturbed. 
Lilienthal believed flat aeroplanes offered undue 
resistance, and determined that it is necessary to 
make the surfaces of concavo-convex shape based 
upon those of the wings of birds. Phillips's ex- 
periments led to the conclusion that flat or nearly 
flat surfaces were unsuitable (he says useless) for 
carrying heavy loads in the air. If flight is to be 
possible, he finds that each square foot of sustain- 
ing surface will have to be capable of supporting 
a weight of at least 3 lbs. If the sustaining area 
approaches a proportion of one pound carried per 
square foot, such a machine would not have suffi- 
cient strength, and be liable to damage from 
strong winds when at rest upon the ground. 



FLYING MACHINES OF THE FUTURE. 115 

Phillips maintained that no flat aeroplane would 
support 3 lbs. per square foot if driven at a prac- 
ticable speed and angle of inclination. With his 
system of curved planes he claimed that 8 lbs. per 
square foot was lifted at 40 miles per hour hori- 
zontal speed. The proportion of lift to thrust 
was constant, and the weight of the aeroplane is 
not included. According to his experiments, a 
propelling thrust of about 100 lbs. would be 
necessary to support 1,000 lbs. in air ; this multi- 
plied by 39 ft. per second (according to him) as 
the lowest practicable speed will show about seven 
horse-power required. He says to double the 
speed at least twice the power and nearly twice 
the weight of propelling engine (steam) would be 
necessary. Including water in the boiler, he 
allows 60 lbs. for each effective horse-power 
developed. Mr. Hargrave in his communications 
to the Eoyal Society of New 7 South Wales, how- 
ever, warns experimenters against placing too much 
reliance upon thrust diagrams. He gives an in- 
stance of an experiment with one of his model 
machines which was driven by compressed air, the 
engine having three cylinders, lj-in. diameter, 
'79-in. stroke, cut-off at § stroke; air pressure, 
170 lbs. per square inch; weight of engine and 
screw, 6J ozs. When the blades of the screw 
propeller were set at a pitch angle of 20 degs. a 
high thrust was obtained on the indicator, but the 
machine flew a very short distance. When the 
blades were set at an angle of 45 degs. a low 



116 FLYING MACHINES. 

thrust was indicated, but the machine flew 50 per 
cent, further. He reasons from this that the 
blades should be set parallel to the shaft and the 
pitch allowed to be automatically adjusted by 
torsion, the blade surfaces being placed entirely 
behind the supporting arms, but says that it is 
matter for consideration for those who prefer the 
screw propeller to flapping wings. This shows 
that there is still much to be discovered with re- 
gard to the behaviour of surfaces in motion through 
the air. According to one account of Langley's 
experiments with aeroplanes moved horizontally 
through the air at the end of a rotating arm, the 
propelling power required to move the plane 
decreased as the velocity increased. Under the 
initials J. H. K. a writer in Engineering, June 13, 
1890, gives an account of some trials made with 
lifting screens in air. It is stated that one horse- 
power will lift 33 to 35 lbs., and the opinion is 
given that the power required when the machine 
is under weigh will be much less than generally 
supposed. Further, that to support a body in air, 
the quantity of air per second which moves under 
it should be equal in weight to that of the body as 
drawn down by gravity. But Mr. Henry "Wilde, 
F.E.S., in the same journal also states that the 
results of some experiments made by him on the 
ascensional power of aerial screws did not give 
sufficiently promising results to induce him to 
proceed far in this direction. Screws working in 
air are really aeroplanes, whether applied for the 



FLYING MACHINES OF THE FUTURE. 117 

purpose of propulsion in a horizontal direction or 
lifting in a vertical direction. Various experi- 
menters have shown that such screws should, if 
properly designed, give efficient results as with 
screws correctly designed and working in water. 
Mr. W. G-. Walker, A.M.I.C.E., made a number 
of trials with large air propellers in the latter part 
of 1899 to determine the thrust or lifting power 
obtainable per horse-power applied to rotate them. 
His results w T ere issued as a report to the Eoyal 
Society of Great Britain, and an account will be 
found in Engineering of February 16, 1900. The 
propellers were 30 ft. in diameter, and consisted 
of canvas stretched upon a lattice frame. They 
were rotated at various speeds up to 60 revolu- 
tions per minute. Five were tried : A having 
four blades, each 6 ft. wide, placed as shown in 
the accompanying sketch, giving 350 square ft. 
area ; B having two blades of same width as A , 
giving 175 square ft. of area, the two rear blades 
being removed ; C had four blades as A, but they 
were each only 3 ft. in width, giving an area of 
175 square ft. ; D also had four blades each 3 ft. 
in width and placed as A, but with 6 ft. radial 
length nearest the centre removed from each 
blade, leaving four tips 9 ft. in length, giving an 
area of 103 square ft. ; E was the same as A, 
except that the angle of the blades was 21 degs. 
to the plane of rotation instead of 12 J degs., the 
inclination of the others. The general results of 
the experiments show that the thrust varies as 



118 FLYING MACHINES. 

the square of the revolutions ; the horse-power 
required to drive them varies as the cube of the 
revolutions ; the thrust per horse-power varies in- 
versely as the revolutions. For a given indicated 
horse-power propeller E gave the greatest thrust ; 
at 16 indicated horse-power the thrust was 260 lbs. ; 
A and C, 212 lbs. ; D, 192 lbs. ; B, 132 lbs. re- 
spectively. At the same number of revolutions 
A gave about double the thrust of B. For equal 
tip speeds the thrust per horse-power for pro- 
pellers C and E were nearly equal ; B was the 
least efficient. The thrust of B and E at a speed 
of 50 revolutions per minute was 9*4 lbs. and 
15 lbs. respectively; E required 18*7 indicated 
horse-power. The framework was tried alone, 
and required 7*8 indicated horse-power. 

From these experiments it appears that for 
aeronautical purposes screw T propellers will give 
improved results, if made with a series of 
blades placed tandem fashion (Fig. 24), or 
that there is no disadvantage in placing them 
in this way, provided the resulting con- 
struction does not involve increased frame- 
work losses. As such large screw propellers 
really approximate to aeroplanes driven in a 
straight direction, this result is confirmed by 
the practice of experimenters, such as Chanute 
and Wright, who have come to use two or more 
aeroplanes superposed in preference to extending 
the surface area in one plane. Narrow blades 
seem to be as efficient as wide ones within limits, 



FLYING MACHINES OF THE FUTURE. 



119 



and the portion near to the centre does not add 
much to the thrust. It is important to design 
the supports to the blades, so that they will offer 
a small resistance to the air, or a large proportion 
of the driving power will be wasted. The power 
mentioned is that indicated at the cylinder of the 




OS*** 



Fig. 24. — Air Propeller with Tandem Blades. 



steam engine used to drive the propellers, and it 
therefore does not represent the actual power 
applied to the propeller shaft, a certain amount 
would be lost in overcoming the friction of the 
engine parts, driving belt, etc. 

Hargrave in his experiments did not observe 



120 



FLYING MACHINES. 



any tendency of the flying model to list by reason 
of the effort of the body of the machine to rotate 
on the screw propeller shaft. He concludes that 
for propelling purposes the screw and vibrating 
wing, or trochoided plane as he calls it, are about 
equally effective. Comparison may be made 
between the two by the following table of results 
given by him. 





Screw. 


Trochoided 
plane. 


Total area in square inches 
Square inch area per lb. weight 
Weigh in pounds ... 
Pounds weight per square inch ... 
Power used in foot pounds 
Horizontal distance flown in feet 
Distance flown in feet per foot pound ] 
of power... ... ... ... j 


2090 
1045 
2.00 

.00095 

196 

120 

.61 


2130 
1019 
2.09 

.00100 

470 

270 

.57 



Screw propeller was 28ins. diameter, two blades 
7ft. 6ins. pitch, each 6 ins. in length, 6 ins. wide 
at the tips, and 3 ins. wide at the inner ends, 
giving a total surface area of 126 square ins. In 
his account he states that a feature of the 
machine is the small amount of thrust required 
to move a comparatively heavy body horizontally 
through the air w T hen it is supported by a large 
flat surface. Apparently large area of surface is 
of more importance than a powerful propelling 
engine when speed is a secondary consideration. 
The successful models maintained a horizontal 
position, the body plane kept practically level, and 
did not tilt at an angle. 



FLYING MACHINES OF THE FUTURE. 121 

According to Langley the greatest weight that 
can be sustained by an aeroplane with one-horse 
power is 2091bs, ; a man can only continuously 
exert about one-tenth of a horse power, and the 
best he could do by his own effort would be to 
support and drive through the air a weight of 20 
lbs., that is he could not possibly sustain himself 
in this way. Wilde has made experiments upon 
the discharge and reactive force of elastic fluids, 
which proved to him that reactive force produced 
in this manner cannot be utilised to produce 
ascending power for aerial navigation. 

In Engineering, Vol. V., is published an exceed- 
ingly interesting communication, entitled " On 
the flight of birds, etc., in reference to the subject 
of Aerial Navigation,'' by M. de Lucy, of Paris. 
This writer, basing his arguments upon observa- 
tions made upon the flight of birds and other 
beings which use the air as a means of loco- 
motion, contends that weight instead of being an 
obstacle is actually necessary for successful flight. 
He states that the three fundamental conditions 
are weight, surface and force. The rate at which 
a body will fall through air will depend upon the 
horizontal surface which it exposes to the air in 
relation to its weight. As an example take a 
bullet and a sheet of notepaper. If the paper is 
held with its surface horizontal, and it is allowed 
to fall, the descent will be slow owing to the 
resistance offered by the air. The bullet, on the 
contrary, will fall rapidly and reach the ground 



122 FLYING MACHINES. 

in a much shorter space of time if released at the 
same height. But make the same sheet of paper 
into a compact ball, and roll the bullet out flat, 
so that it becomes a thin sheet of foil, and the 
rates of descent will be quite altered. The weight 
of lead will be the same as before, but in the 
form of a thin sheet it will travel slowly owing 
to resistance of the air against its surface. The 
weight of paper will also be the same as before, 
but it will travel comparatively quickly as its 
surface will offer very small resistance to the air. 
As the speed of a surface moving through air in- 
creases so does the resistance. When the direc- 
tion is downwards, the result of this is that the 
force of gravity is being repeatedly neutralised by 
the upward thrust of the air against the moving 
surface. But the surface must continue to fall, 
because as its velocity decreases the thrusting 
effect of the air also decreases, and the downward 
pull, due to gravity, again predominates. The 
net result, however, is that the fall is opposed by 
the air, and its rate can be largely controlled 
by extending the area of surface, the effect 
produced by gravity is not the same as upon a 
body falling in a vacuum. Air resistance is in 
direct relation to the area of the surface bodies, 
and to the square of their velocity. De Lucy 
concludes that the secret of flight is in this prin- 
ciple of the air resistance increasing with the 
velocity until it balances the downward pull due 
to gravity. 



FLYING MACHINES OF THE FUTTJEE. 123 

He points out that all creatures which fly are 
heavier than the air they displace by their bulk, 
that is they do not depend upon the principle of 
buoyancy. Extended observations of winged 
creatures show that the area of their support- 
ing wing surface is always in inverse ratio to 
the weight to be carried in air. That is, the 
heavier the creature the smaller is the size of 
its wings relatively to the weight which they 
are required to lift. The smaller the creature 
also the more powerful it relatively is ; and neces- 
sarily so, as the power required to drive the wing 
is applied very near to the point of attachment to 
the body. Therefore, the wings being larger in 
proportion as the weight of the creature is less, 
it must be relatively able to exert more power in 
flying than a heavier creature with smaller 
wings in proportion to its weight. Insects are 
the strongest of all creatures relatively to their 
size. Taking a weight of one kilogramme (2' 2 
lbs. approx.) as a standard of reference, de Lucy 
finds that a gnat, for example, would require 
wings having an area of 11 square yds., 8 square 
ft., 92 square ins., to support this weight, and a 
bee 1 square yd., 2 square ft., 74J square ins., only. 
A gnat weighs 460 times less than a stag beetle, 
and has fourteen times more wing surface. A 
sparrow weighs ten times less than a pigeon, and 
has twice as much wing surface. The sparrow 
weighs 339 times less than the Australian crane 
and has seven times more surface, all relatively 



124 FLYING MACHINES. 

to weight supported. This latter bird is remark- 
able for its excellent flying powers, taking the 
longest and most remote journeys of all travelling 
birds. With the exception of the eagle they are 
the birds which take the highest flights. 

The shape of the wings, their texture and 
number, and matter of which they are composed 
are of secondary importance. The most impor- 
tant part is the extension of supporting surface. 
Secondly, the place of attachment of the wing 
point relatively to the body. Nature places this 
above, but close to the centre of gravity, to pre- 
serve equilibrium, notwithstanding all kinds of 
movement made by the bird. Gliding birds are 
provided with pointed or tapered wings, flapping 
birds have wings which are more rounded and 
hollow. The flying creature depends very much 
upon its momentum to resist the force of gravity. 
Without a considerable amount of weight in pro- 
portion to its size it could not make full use of 
this principle. Like a projectile, once it has 
gained a certain amount of speed, it can continue 
for an interval of time to proceed through the air 
without falling and without flapping its wings. 
De Lucy has discovered a law that a winged 
animal, weighing from eight to ten times more 
than another has always two times less surface. 
The surface required to support a man should be 
determined by reference to the largest and 
heaviest bird, say, for example, the Australian 
crane. De Lucy assumes this bird to develop an 



FLYING MACHINES OF THE FUTUBE. 125 

average power of 20 kilogrammes (about J horse- 
power) . Taking the weight of a man and flying 
apparatus to be 100 kilogrammes (220 lbs. approx.) 
the force required to enable him to fly would be, 
according to this reasoning, 200 kilogrammetres 
(about 2^ horse-power ) , that is following the law 
of decrease of force required in proportion to 
weights and volumes and a supporting surface of 9 
square metres (10 square yds., 6 square ft., 126 
square ins.). To support ten times this weight, 
that is to support 1,000 kilogrammes (2,200 lbs. 
approx.), he takes half of the surface for 100 
kilogrammes as a basis, and finds that for 1,000 
kilogrammes to be sustained the surface necessary 
is 22 square metres, 50 square centimetres (31 
square yds. 2 square ft. 123| square ins.). Fol- 
lowing the same reasoning, the surface to support 
10,000 kilogrammes (22,000 lbs. approx.) would 
be 112 square metres, and for 100,000 kilo- 
grammes (220,000 lbs. approx.) 360 square metres. 
He believes the force required would follow the 
same law for the greater weights, but states, how- 
ever, that experience is the great word. 

De Lucy arrives at the conclusion that a flying 
apparatus designed to support a man and to be 
moved by the force of that man will always be too 
heavy for its volume in relation to the force 
necessary to propel it. Aerial navigation can and 
will be only successful with large machines. 
Weight increases by simple proportion, but sur- 
faces and volumes as the square and cube. If a 



126 FLYING MACHINES. 

flying apparatus is made of very large size, its 
weight will be insignificant relatively to the 
volume. As an illustration, he refers to a small 
balloon of one metre diameter made of a certain 
thickness of silk and inflated with hydrogen gas 
cannot raise itself, but if the diameter is increased 
10 times, it will not only rise, but lift 550 kilo- 
grammes (1,210 lbs. approximately). 

Others do not agree with this idea, and believe 
that large machines are not practicable — that 
because a design may w T ork well in a small size it 
will not necessarily be successful when made of 
large size. From similar reasoning it has been 
argued that all flying machines will be failures 
from a useful point of view. Wilde somewhat 
agrees with the reasoning of de Lucy, as he is of 
opinion that aeroplanes are of the nature of pro- 
jectiles, and is confident that the problem will be 
solved. He suggests the idea of a parachute with 
its action reversed by a vibrating movement as the 
one remaining method failing the discovery of 
some new property of matter. 

Contemplating these various opinions and re- 
sults of observations which show that the experi- 
menters and observers have brought considerable 
intelligence to bear upon the subject, we may 
fairly conclude that aerial navigation by machines 
heavier than air will eventually be accomplished. 
Probably various types of airship or flying apparatus 
will remain in use, each being that suitable for 
some particular purpose. Balloons with yet 



FLYING MACHINES OF THE FUTURE. 127 

further improvements can serve within certain 
limits. Apparatus to be used by individuals will 
be likely to follow the gliding principle as illus- 
trated by that practised by Lilienthal, Pilcher, 
Chanute, and others, first as a sport and then for 
ordinary purposes of locomotion, again within 
limits. The experiments of Le Bris and Phillips, 
however, indicate that we do not know all that 
can be accomplished by utilising not only the lift- 
ing but the aspirating effects produced by air 
currents in contact with curved surfaces, and the 
limits of movement with gliding apparatus may 
be much wider than would seem possible at this 
moment. Large flying machines may utilise 
several methods in combination — horizontal 
screws to produce the preliminary elevation, 
fixed planes to maintain the load during flight 
and to assist in safe descent. The supporting 
power of the wind will be made use of, and the 
projectile principle will come into action to 
neutralise the effect of gravity. Weight will be 
incidental and not a thing to be eliminated, as far 
as possible, at all cost. In marine navigation we 
have a great range of appliances, from the canoe 
to the ocean liner and battleship. For land loco- 
motion mankind makes use of many machines, 
each applicable to certain purposes, and all requir- 
ing skill in their use ; people cannot even walk 
without having acquired by practice the ability to 
do so. To support ourselves and move in the air 
we must be prepared to accept similar conditions, 



128 FLYING MACHINES. 

creating appliances by degrees, one improvement 
following another, the skill and knowledge to use 
them being acquired gradually and through many 
failures. Just as the ability to make and manage 
a modern steamship has required many years of 
application, so will that required to make and 
manage the equivalent airship demand its full toll 
of study and sacrifice. 



JOHN TAYLOR, GRAYS INN ROAD, LONDON, W.C. 



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net maker. By P. A. Wells, 79 pages, 19 illustrations, 25c. 



50 Cent Books. 



PRACTICAL DYNAMO AND MOTOR CONSTRUCTION. A hand- 
book of Constructive Details and Workshop Methods used in 
Building Small Machines. By Alfred W. Marshall. Contents 
of Chapters: 1. Field Magnets. 2. Winding Field Magnets. 3. 
Drum Armature Building. 4. Ring Armature Building. 5. How 
to Wind Armatures. General Notes. Siemens or H Armatures. 
Polar Armatures. 6. How to Wind Armatures (continued). Drum 
and Ring Armatures. Binding Wires and Repairs. 7. Commutator 
Making. 8. Brush Gears. 9. Mechanical Details of Dynamos and 
Motors. 10. Terminals and Connections. 131 pages, 133 illustra- 
tions, 12mo., boards. 

MODEL SAILING YACHTS. How to Build, Rig, and Sail Them. 
A practical handbook for Model Yachtsmen. Edited by Percival 
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of Model Yachts. 3. The Construction of " Dug-Out " Yachts. 

4. The Construction of " Built-Up " Yachts. 5, Sails and Sail 
Making. 6. Spars and Fittings. 7. Rudders and Steering Gears. 
8. Notes on Sailing. 144 pages, 107 illustrations, 12mo., boards. 

PRACTICAL MOTOR CAR REPAIRING. A handbook for Motor 
Car Owners and Drivers. By Eric W. Walford. Contents of 
Chapters: 1. The Motor. 2. Ignition. 3. Cooling System. 4. The 
Carburettor: Exhaust and Lubrication Systems. 5. Transmission. 
6. Frames, Springs, Axles and Wheels. 7. Tires. 8. Causes and 
Effects. 9. Miscellaneous. 126 pages, 39 illustrations, 12mo., 
boards. 

THE BEGINNER'S GUIDE TO CARPENTRY. A practical hand- 
book for Amateurs and Apprentices. By Henry Jarvis. Con- 
tents of Chapters: 1. Indispensable Tools. 2. How to Use the Saw. 
3. How to Use the Plane. 4. How to Use Chisels and. Gouges. 

5. How to Use the Spokeshave, Axe, Pincers, Compasses, Gimlets, 
Brad-Awls, Hammer, etc. 6. Making the Bench. 7. Timber: 
How Sold, etc. 8. Additional Tools and How to Use Them. 9. 
Sharpening Tools. 10. Home-made Tools and Appliances. 11. 
Facing up and Setting out Work. 12. On Setting out and Putting 
Together Work Joining at Other than Right Angles. 13. Glue: 
How to Purchase, Prepare, and Use. 14. How to Make Joints: 
Use of the Plough, etc. 15. Ornamenting Work, Curved Work, 
Scribing, etc. 128 pages, 99 illustrations, 12mo., boards. 

CIRCULAR SLIDE RULE. The Use and Working of the Watch 
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Theory of the Slide Rule and Calculator- With 10 folding plates 
of illustrations. 12mo., limp cloth. 



Hotes on Design of Small Dynamo 



— BY- 
GEORGE HALLID.AY. 



This book has been mainly prepared for the purpose of supplying 
drawings of a small dynamo of a well-known type to enable students to 
better understand the construction of this machine, and to handle the 
different details as the lectures which they are attending on the subject 
are proceeding. The type of dynamo has been so chosen that it will 
allow of considerable pains being taken in the workshop with its con- 
struction. 

79 Pages, illustrated, cloth, with a number of Drawings to scale, 

$1.00. 



Ton Ploipaiil, and low to Gonstrnct it 

WITH A CHAPTER ON SOUND. 
By W. GILLETT. 



This little work deals with the construction of the Phonograph in 

such a plain, straightforward manner, that the humblest student of the 

Phonograph will clearly understand its construction. With this little 

work are a number of drawings to scale of the various parts of the 

Phonograph. 

87 Pages, 12mo, cloth, $2.00. 



AN AMERICAN BOOK. 



Second edition thoroughly revised, greatly enlarged and brought uo 
to latest American Practice, 

By H. S. NORRIE, 

(NORMAN H SCHNKIDER) 



Considerable space in the new matter is given to the following i 
Medical and bath coils, gas engine and spark coils, contact breakers, 
primary and secondary batteries; electric gas lighting; new method 
of X-ray work, etc. A complete chapter on up-to-date wireless tele- 
graphy; a number of new tables and 25 original illustrations. Great 
care has been given to the revision to make this book the best Amer« 
ican work on the subject. A very complete index, contents, list of 
illustrations and contents of tables have been added. 

Contents of Chapters. 

1. Construction of coils; sizes of wire; winding; testing; insula* 
tionj general remarks; medical and spark coils. 2. Contact breakers. 
3. Insulation and cements. 4. Construction of condensers. 5. Ex 
periments. 6. Spectrum analysis. 7. Currents in vacuo; air pumps. 
8. Rotating effects. 9. Electric gas lighting; in multiple; in series. 
10. Primary batteries for coils; varieties; open circuit cells; closed 
circuit cells; solutions. 11. Storage or secondary batteries; construc- 
tion; setting up; charging. 12. Tesla and Hertz effects. 13. Roent- 
gen Radiography. 14. Wireless telegraphy; arrangement of circuits 
•f coil and coherer for sending and receiving messages; coherers; 
translating devices; air conductors; tables; contents; index. 

XII + 270 Pages, 79 Illustrations, 5 x 
Cloth, $1.80. 



THE PRACTICAL ENGINEER'S HANDBOOK. 
TO THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF 

ELECTRIC P OWER P LANTS 

By NORMAN H. SCHNEIDER, 

Chief Engineer, "White City/' Coling c wood, Ohio. 

EXTRACTS FROM PREFACE. 

In revising the first edition of Power Plants the author decided 
to greatly enlarge it in the. hope that it will have a still greater 
* success than the first one. The section on theory is thoroughly 
revised. A complete chapter on Standard Wiring including new 
tables and original diagrams added. The National Fire Under- 
writers' rules condensed and simple explanations given. 

Direct and alternating current motors have been given a special 
chapter and modern forms of starting rheostats described at length. 
The principles of alternators have been considered also trans- 
formers and their applications. Modern testing instruments and 
their use are given a separate chapter. New matter has been 
added to storage batteries including charging of automobile bat- 
teries, 10' new tables, and i37 new illustrations. 

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. 

1. The Electric Current; series and multiple connections; 
resistance of circuits; general explanation of formulas. 

2. Standard Wiring; wiring formulas and tables; wiring sys- 
tems; cut-outs; conduits; panel boxes; correct methods of wiring. 

3. Direct and Alternating Current Generators; manage- 
ment in the power house; windings; selection of generators. 

4. Motors and Motor Starters; various forms of motors; con- 
trollers; care of motors and their diseases; rules for installing. 

5. Testing and Measuring Instruments; voltmeter testing 
and connections; instruments used; switchboard instruments. 

6. The Storage Battery; different kinds; switchboards for 
charging fixed and movable batteries; management of battery. 

7. The Incandescent Lamp; various methods of testing; life 
of lamps. 

8. Engineering Notes; belts and pulleys h.p. of belts. Tables. 
Contents. Index. 

290 pages, 203 illustrations. 12mo., cloth, $1.50, 

Full limp leather, $2.5Q. ^. 



ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS-^ 
and TESTING. 

How to Use the Voltmeter, Ammeter, Galvanometer, Potentiometer, 
Ohmmeter, the Wheatstone Bridge, and the Standard Portable 
Testing Sets. 

BY 

NORMAN H. SCHNEIDER. 

Author of " Care and Handling of Electric Plants," *' Induction 
Coils and Coil Making," " Circuits and Diagrams, " etc, etc. 



The aim of the author has been to produce a complete and prac- 
tical work on this important subject. 

First describing the various forms of Electrical Testing and 
Measuring Instruments and their construction. 

Secondly, their practical application to everyday work with 
numerous examples worked out. 

Thirdly, detailing the many tests of insulation resistance, cur- 
rent and e.m.f. that can be made with a voltmeter. 

Using only formulas in simple algebra and then explaining them 
in plain language for the benefit of practical men lacking a knowl- 
edge of mathematics. 

During the past ten years the author has made hundreds of 
tests, which has made him familiar with the subject from the 
practical standpoint. He has also obtained valuable information 
and diagrams from the principal manufacturers of Testing Instru- 
ments. The apparatus described is modern and in universal use. 

Most of the diagrams have been specially drawn for this book. 

The work is divided into XI. chapters as follows: 

Introduction; Chapters I. and II, The Galvanometer; III, 
Rheostats; IV, The Voltmeter; V, The Wheatstone Bridge; VI, 
Forms of Portable Sets; VII, Current Flow and e.m.f.; VIII, The 
Potentiometer; IX, Condensers; X, Cable Testing; XI, Testing 
with Voltmeter. 

230 pages, 105 illustrations and diagrams, 12mo., cloth, $1.00. 



Design of Dynamos 

BY 

SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, D. &♦, B, A„ F. R. S. 

EXTRACTS FROM PREFACE. 
" The present work is purposely confined to continuous current 
generators. The calculations and data being expressed in inch 
measures ; but the author has adopted throughout the decimal sub- 
division of the inch; small lengths being in mils, and small areas of 
cross-section in sq. mils, or, sometimes, also, in circular mils." 

CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. 

1. Dynamo Design as an Art. 

2. Magnetic Data and Calculations. Causes of waste of 
Power. Coefficients of Dispersion. Calculation of Dispersion. 
Determination of exciting ampere-turns. Example of Calculation. 

3. Copper Calculations. Weight of Copper Wire. Electrical 
resistance of Copper, in cube, strip, rods, etc. Space-factors. Coil 
Windings; Ends; Insulation; Ventilating; Heating. 

4. Insulating Materials and Their Properties. A list of 
materials, including " Armalac," " Vi trite," " Petrifite," " Mican- 
ite," " Vulcabeston," " Stabilite," " Megohmite," etc. With tables. 

5. Armature Winding Schemes. Lap Windings, Ring Wind- 
ings, Wave Windings, Series Ring-Windings, Winding Formulae. 
Number of circuits. Equalizing connections. Colored plates. 

6. Estimation of Losses, Heating and Pressure-drop. Cop- 
per Losses, Iron Losses, Excitation Losses, Commutator Losses, 
Losses through sparking. Friction and Windage Losses. Second- 
ary Copper Losses. 

7. The Design of Continuous Current Dynamos. Working 
Constants and Trial Values; Flux-densities; Length of Air-gap; 
Number of Poles; Current Densities; Number of Armature Con- 
ductors; Number of Commutator Segments; Size of Armature 
(Steinmetz coefficient) ; Assignment of Losses of Energy ; Cen- 
trifugal Forces; Calculation of Binding Wires; Other procedure in 
design. Criteria of a good design. Specific utilization of material. 

8. Examples of Dynamo Design. 

1. Shunt- wound multipolar machine, with slotted drum arma- 
ture. 2, Over-compounded Multipolar traction generator, with 
slotted drum armature, with general specifications, tables, dimen- 
sions and drawings, fully described. 

A number of examples of generators are given in each chapter, 
fully worked out with rules, tables and data. 

VIII. X253 pages, 92 illustrations, 10 large foiling plates and 4 
Three-color Plates, 8vo., cloth, $3.50. 



Dynamo=Electric Machinery 

VOL. L— CONTINUOUS CURRENT. 



BY 



SILVANUS P. THOMPSON, D.Sc.,B.A.,RRS, 



7th Edition Revised and Greatly Enlarged. 



CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. 

I. Introductory. 2. Historical Notes. 

3. Physical Theory of Dynamo -Electric Machines. 

4. Magnetic Principles; and the Magnetic Properties of Iron. 

5. Forms of Field-Magnets. 

6. Magnetic Calculations as Applied to Dynamo Machines. 

7. Copper Calculations; Coil Windings. 

8. Insulating Materials and their Properties. 

9. Actions and Reactions in the Armature. 

10. Commutation; Conditions of Suppression of Sparking. 

II. Elementary Theory of the Dynamo, Magneto and Separately 
Excited Machines, Self-exciting Machines. 

12. Characteristic Curves. 

13. The Theory of Armature Winding. ' 

14. Armature Construction. 

15. Mechanical Points in Design and Construction. 

16. Commutators, Brushes and Brush-Holders. 

17. Losses, Heating and Pressure-Drop. 

18. The Design of Continuous Current Dynamos. 

19. Analysis of Dynamo Design. 

20. Examples of Modern Dynamos (Lighting and Traction). 

21. Dynamos for Electro-Metallurgy and Electro-Plating. 

22. Arc-Lighting Dynamos and Rectifiers. 

23. Special Types of Dynamos; Extra High Voltage Machines, 
Steam-Turbine Machines, Extra Low Speed Machines, Exciters, 
Double-Current Machines, Three- Wire Machines, Homopolar (Uni- 
polar) Machines, Disk Dynamos. 

24. Motor-Generators and Boosters. 

25. Continuous-Current Motors. 

26. Regulators, Rheostats, Controllers and Starter. 

27. Management and Testing of Dynamos. 

Appendix, Wire Gauge Tables. Index. 

996 pages, 573 illustrations, 4 colored plates, 32 large folding 
plates. 8vo., cloth. $7.50.1 



SPONS' ENCYCLOPAEDIA 

OF THE 

Industrial Arts, Manufactures 



AND 



Commercial Products. 



EDITED BY 



Q. Q. ANDRE, F.Q.S., Asso.=M. Inst. C.E. 

AND 

C. Q. WARNFORD LOCK, F.L.S., F.G.S., M.I.M.M. 

Assisted by many prominent Manufacturers, Chemists and Scientists. 



This encyclopedia is written by practical men for practical men. 

Raw Materials form perhaps its most important feature and are 
dealt with in a way never before attempted. 

Manufacturers are discussed in detail from the manufacturing 
standpoint by manufacturers of acknowledged reputation. 

Special consideration is give'n to the utilization of waste, the pre- 
vention of nuisance, and the question of adulterations. 

Technicalities are explained, and bibliographies (English, Ameri 
can, French, German, etc.), are appended to the principal articles. 

Over 2,000 pages and nearly 2,000 illustrations. 

We are offering a Limited number of sets of "a 

SPECIAL THREE VOLUME EDITION HANDSOMELY 

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A full descriptive circular can be had on application. 



Dubelle's Famous Formulas. 

KNOWN AS 

Non Plus Ultra Soda Fountain Requisites of modern Times. 

By <G« H. DIJ BELLE. 

A practical Receipt Book f 07 Druggists, Chemists \ Confectioners and Venders 
of Soda Water. 

S 'iVGPSIS of contents. 

Introduction.— Notes on natural fruit juices and improved me- 
thods for their preparation. Selecting the fruit. Washing and 
pressing the fruit. Treating the juice. Natural fruit syrups and 
mode of preparation. Simple or stock syrups. 

FORMULAS. 

Fruit Syrups.— Blackberry, black current, black raspberry, ca- 
tawba, cherry, concord grape, cranberry, lime, peach, pineapple, 
plum, quince, raspberry, red current, red orange, scuppernong grape, 
strawberry, wild grape. New Improved Artificial Fruit Syrups. — 
Apple, apricot, banana, bitter orange, blackberry, black current, 
cherry, citron, curacoa, grape, groseille, lemon, lime, mandarin, mul- 
berry, nectarine, peach, pear, pineapple, plum, quince, raspberry, 
red current, strawberry, sweet orange, tangerine, vanilla. » Fancy 
Soda Fountain Syrups. — Ambrosia, capillaire, coca-kina, coca-van- 
llla, coca-vino, excelsior, imperial, kola-coca, kola-kina, kola-vanilla, 
kola- vino, nectar, noyean, orgeat, sherbet, syrup of roses, syrup of 
violets, s Artificial Fruit Essences. — Apple, apricot, banana, berg- 
amot, blackberry, black cherry, black currant, blueberry, citron, 
cranberry, gooseberry, grape, lemon, lime fruit, melon, nectarine, 
orange, peach, pear, pineapple, plum, quince, raspberry, red currant, 
strawberry. Concentrated Fruit Phosphates. -Acid solution of 
phosphate, strawberry, tangerine, wild cherry. — 29 different formulas. 
New Malt Phosphates — 36. Foreign and Domestic Wine Phos- 
phates— 9. Cream-Fruit Lactarts — 28. Soluble Flavoring Ex- 
tracts and Essences — 14. New Modern Punches— 18. Milk 
Punches — 17. Fruit Punches — 32. Fruit Meads — 18. New Fruit 
Champagnes — 17. New Egg Phosphates — 14. Fruit Juice Shakes 
— 24. Egg Phosphate Shakes. Hot Egg Phosphate Shakes. 
Wine Bitter Shakes — 12. Soluble Wine Bitters Extracts — 12. 
New Italian LexMonades — 18. Ice Cream Sodas — 39. Non-Poison- 
ous Colors. Foam Preparations. Miscellaneous Formulas — 26. 
Latest Novelties in Soda Fountain Mixtures — 7. Tonics.— Beef, 
iron and cinchona; hypophosphite ; beef and coca ; beef, wine and 
iron ; beef, wine, iron and cinchona ; coca and calisaya. Lactarts. 
— Imperial tea ; mocha coffee ; nectar; Persian sherbert. Punches. 
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Lemonades. — French ; Vienna. Eggnogg. Hop ale. Hot torn. Mart 
wine. Sherry cobbler. Saratoga milk shake. Pancretin and wine. 
Kola-coco cordial/ Iron malt phosphate. Pepsin, wine andiron, etc 
157 Pages, Nearly 500 Formulas. 12mo, Clotk, $1 



AMERICAN LIBRARY EDITION 

OF 

Workshop 

T^egeipts. 

The Most Complete Technical Encyclopaedia in 5 Volumes. 

IN HANDSOME CLOTH COVERED BOX* 
Price, $10,00 

Vol I Principal Contents.— Bronzes, Cements, Dyeing, Electrometal- 
~ ***• ■• lurgy, Enamels, Etchings, Fireworks Fluxes, Fulminates, Gilding 
Gums, Japanning, Lacquers, Marble Working, Nitro-Glycerine, Photography, 
Pottery, Varnishes. 420 pages, 103 illustrations, index. 



W^vl Principal Contents.— Acidimetry, Albumen, Alcohol, Alkaloids, 

" "*# **• Bitters, Bleaching, Boiler Incrustations, Cleansing. Confection- 
ery, Copying, Disinfectants, Essences, Extracts, Fire-proofing, Glycerine, Gut, 
Iodine, Ivory Substitutes, Leather, Matches, Pigments, Paint, Paper, Parch- 
ment. 485 pages, 16 illustrations, index. 



Vol II Principal Contents.— Alloys, Aluminium, Antimony. Copper, 

* V1 » ■■*• Electrics, Enamels. Glass, Gold Iron and Steel, Liquors, Lead, 
Lubricants, Magnesium, Manganese, Mercury. Mica, Nickel, Platinum, Silver, 
Slag, Tin, Uranium, Zinc. 480 pages, 183 illustrations, index. 



Vfll IV Principal Contents.— Water-proofing, Packing and Stowing, 

v "■• I ▼ • Embalming and Preserving, Leather Polishes, Cooling Air and 
Water, Pumps and Siphons, Dessicating, Distilling, Emulsifying. Evaporating, 
Filtering, Percolating and Macerating. Electrotyping, Stereotyping, Book- 
binding. Straw-plaiting, Musical Instruments, Clock and Watch Mending, 
Photography. 443 pages, 243 illustrations, index. 



\7fA A7 Principal Contents.— Diamond Cutting, Laboratory Apparatus, 
▼ "*• ▼ • Copying, Filtering, Fire-proofing, Magic Lanterns, Metal Work, 
Percolation, Illuminating Agents, Tobacco Pipes Taps, Tying and Splicing, 
Tackle, Repairing Books, Netting, Walking Sticks, Boat Building, 440 pages, 
378 illustrations, index, 



PAINT — ** M 
and COLOR MIXING. 

A Practical Handbook 

For Painters, Decorators, and all Who Have to Mix Colors. 

Containing many samples of Oil and Water Paints of various 

colors, including the principal Graining Grounds, and upwards 

of 500 different Color Mixtures ,, with Hints on Color and 

Paint Mixing generally. Testing Colors, Receipts for 

Special Paints, &c, &c. 

By ARTHUR SEYMOUR JENNINGS. 



Second Edition, Rewritten and Considerably Enlarged. 



Contents of Chapters. 
I. — Paint and Color Mixing. 
II. — Colors or Strainers. 
III. — Reds and How to Mix Them. 
IV. — Blues and How to Mix Them. 
V. — Yellows and How to Mix Them. 
VI. — Greens and How' to Mix Them. 
VII. — Browns and How to Mix Them. 
VIII. — Greys and How to Mix them. 
IX. — Whites and How to Mix Them. 
X. — Black Japan in Color Mixing. 
XI. — Graining Grounds and Graining Colors. 
XII. — Water Paints, Painting and Varnishing over Water Paints, 

Distempers, &c. 
XIII. — Testing Colors, Purity of Materials, Tone, Fineness of 

Grinding, Spreading Capacity, &c. 
XIV. — Notes on Color Harmony. 
XV. — Tables, Notes and Receipts, Care of Brushes, Putty Receipts, 

&c. Description of Colored Plates. Index. 



The eight plates contain 171 samples of Colors, Graining: Grounds, Tints of 
Water Paints, and Non«=Poisonous Distempers. 

This is the most Practical and Up=to=Date Work on this Subject, is very 
clearly written, and will enable any man who studies it to make Bigger Wages. 

With 149 pages of descriptive matter, 8vo, cloth, price, $2,50 



Brass Founders' Alloys 

A PRACTICAL HAND BOOK. 



Containing Many Useful Tables, Notes and Data for the Guid- 
ance of Manufacturers, etc. With Descriptions of 
Approved Modern Methods and Appliances 
for Melting and Mixing the Alloys, 



JOHN F. BUCHANAN. 

This work is written from the accumulated experience and data 
gathered throughout an extensive responsible connection with this 
trade and presents the practical features of manufacturing the alloys 
on a commercial basis. The author classifies the particular alloys 
required by the branches of trade interested in them. Tabulating 
only those methods which have been approved in practice, and dis- 
cussing the best methods of conducting the various operations. 

CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. 

Introduction. — i. Uses and Characteristics of the Common Metals. 
2. Some Peculiarities of Alloys. 3. Common Methods of Making 
Alloys. 4. Brassfounders' Alloys. 5. The Modern Alloys. 6. 
Miscellaneous Alloys. Index. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Section Elevation and Plan of a Reverberatory Furnace. Photo- 
gravure Plate Containing 12 examples of the Microstructure of 
Bearing Metals. Drawings and Details of Crucible Furnaces. Pin, 
Section of Ends, Tup View and Cross Section of a Revolving Ingot- 
Mould, with numerous tables, &c., &c. 

VIII + 129 pages, 5 z 7£ in. 26 illustrations, cloth, $2.00. 



TURNING LATHES. A Manual for Technical Schools and Ap- 
prentices. A guide to. Turning, Screw-Cutting, Metal-Spinning, 
Ornamental Turning, etc. Edited by James Lu^in. 6th edition. 
Contents of Chapters: 1. Description of the Lathe. 2. Tools, and 
How to Use Them. 3. Hard-wood Turning. 4. Metal Turning 
with Hand Tools. 5. Slide-Rest Work in Metal. 6. The Self- 
Acting Lathe. 7. Chuck-Making. 8. Turning Articles of Square 
Section. 9. Screw-Cutting by Self-Acting Lathe. 10. The Over- 
head Driving Apparatus. 11. Choosing a Lathe. 12. Grinding 
and Setting Tools. 13. Metal-Spinning. 14. Beddow's (Com- 
bined) Epicycloidal, Rose-Cutting, Eccentric-Cutting, Drilling, 
Fluting, and Vertical-Cutting Appliances. 15. Ornamental Drill 
and Eccentric Cutter. 16. The Eccentric Chuck. 17. The Dome 
or Spherical Chuck. 18. The Goniostat. 19. The Oval or Ellipse 
Chuck. 20. Handy Receipts and Wrinkles. Cloth, 228 pages, 
profusely illustrated. 12mo., cloth, $1.25 net. 

SPIRAL TURNING. An Introduction to Eccentric Spiral 
Turning, or New Uses for Old Chucks. By H. C. Robinson. The 
Art of Ornamental Turning. Chapter 1. The Spiral Line. 2. The 
Solid Spiral. 3. Trochoyds. 4. Working the Chucks. 5. The 
Oval Chuck. 6. Compounding. 7. The Geometric Chuck. 8. The 
Tool-Cut. 9. Drawing the Spiral. 10. Cups. With explanation 
of the plates. 48 pages, 23 illustrations and 12 fine half-tone 
plates, 8vo., cloth. $2.00. 

THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE, its Design and Construction. A 
practical mantial on the building and management of Miniature 
Railway Engines, by Henry Greenley. The book deals primarily 
with working model locomotives in all sizes, and for the most part 
for those built for the instruction and amusement of their owners. 
The subject is treated thoroughly and practically and profusely 
illustrated with details, diagrams and a number of large folding 
scale drawings. 276 pages, 9 in. x 5J in., cloth. $2,504 

THE WORLD'S LOCOMOTIVES. A digest of the latest loco- 
motive practice in the railway countries of the world. By Chas. 
S. Lake. Contents of Chapters: 1. Introduction: Exigencies of 
Locomotive Design, Boiler Design and Construction. 2. Loco- 
motive Types: Cylinder and Wheel Arrangements. 3. British 
Locomotives : 4-4-0 Type Express Engines. 4. British Locomotives : 
4-4-2. Type Express Engines. 5. British Locomotives: Six Coupled, 
Single, and other Types of Express Engines. 6. British Loco- 
motives: Tank Engines. 7. British Locomotives: Shunting, Con- 
tractors, Light Railway, and Crane Locomotives. 8. British Loco- 
motives: Goods Engines. 9. British Compound Locomotives. 10. 
Colonial and Indian Locomotives. 11. Foreign Locomotives: Four- 
Coupled Express Engines. 12. Foreign Locomotives: 4-6-0 and 
other Types. 13. Foreign Locomotives: Tank Engines. 14. For- 
eign Locomotives: Goods Engines. 15. American Passenger Loco- 
motives. 16. American Freight Locomotives. 380 pages, 376 
illustrations, 8 large folding scale plates. 4to., cloth, $4,00 net. 



IMEetal Plate Work, 

ITS PATTERNS AND THEIR GEOMETRY. 

Also Notes on Metals, and Rules in Mensuration ; for 
the use of Tin, Iron and Zinc-plate Workers, Copper- 
smiths, Boiler-makers, Plumbers and others. 

By C. T. MILLIS, M.I.M.E. 



Second Edition, Revised and considerably Enlarged. 



In producing the Second Edition of this book, which unfortunately 
has been long delayed through pressure of work, the author feels con- 
fident that the addition of the seventy pages of new matter will add 
considerably to the value of this work, besides bringing it well up to 
date. It has been his aim throughout this work to be as plain and 
practical as possible and to be a guide and workshop companion not only 
to the young mechanic but also a valuable help to the old and experiencod 
worker in metal-plate. The number of illustrations used makes this 
work very comprehensive and explicit. 




CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. 

Classification. Introductory problems. Articles of equal taper or 
inclination of slant. Patterns for round articles of equal taper or inclina- 
tion of slant. Equal tapering bodies and their plans. Patterns for flat 
faced equal tapering bodies. Patterns for equal tapering bodies of flat 
and curved surfaces combined. Patterns for round articles of unequal 
taper or inclination of slant. Unequal tapering bodies and their plans. 
Patterns for flat faced unequal tapering bodies. Patterns for unequal 
tapering bodies of flat and curved surfaces combined. Patterns for 
miscellaneous articles. Metals; alloys; solders; soldering fluxes. Seams 
or joints. Useful rules in mensuration ; tables of weights of metals. 

Index. 377 pages, 314 illustrations, 12mo., cloth, $3.50. 



SCREjW CUTTING. Turner's Handbook on Screw Cutting, 
Coning, etc., with tables, examples, Gauges and Formulas. By 
Walter Price. 16mo., cloth. 40c. 

SCREW CUTTING. Screw cutting tables, for the use of Mechan- 
ical engineers, showing the proper arrangement of wheels for cut- 
ting the threads of screws of any required pitch, with a table for 
malting the Universal gas-pipe threads and taps. By W. A. Mar- 
tin. Sixth edition Oblong, cloth. 40c. 

TURNING. The practice of hand-turning in wood, ivory, shell, 
etc., with instructions for turning such work in metal as may be 
required in the practice of turning in wood, ivory, etc., also an ap- 
pendix on ornamental turning. (A book for beginners.) By 
Francis C ampin. Third edition. Contents: On Lathes, Turning 
Tools, Turning Wood, Drilling, Screw-cutting, Miscellaneous Appa- 
ratus and Processes, Turning Particular Forms, Staining, Polish- 
ing, Spinning Metals, Materials, Ornamental Turning. 300 pages, 
99 illustrations. 8vo., cloth. 

TURNER AND FITTER'S P0CKETB00K. For calculating 

the change wheels for screws on a turning lathe and for a wheel- 
cutting machine. By J. La Nice a. 16mo., paper. 20 cts. 

TABLES of the Principal Speeds occurring in mechanical engi- 
neering, expressed in metres, in a second. By P. Keerayeff, 
Translated by Sergius Kern, M.E. 16mo., paper, 20 cts. 

PRACTICAL LESSONS IN METAL TURNING. By P. Mar- 
shall. A thoroughly practical up-to-date work. Contents of 
chapters: 1, Tools and Tool Holders. 2, Measuring Appliances. 
3, Chucks and Mandrels. 4, How to Centre Work for the Lathe. 
5, Driving Work between Centres. 6, Turning Work between 
Centres. 7, Chuck and Face-Plate Work. 8, Drilling and Boring 
in the Lathe. 9, Screw-Cutting. 166 pages, 193 original illustra- 
tions. 12nio., cloth. $1,004 

MILLWRIGHT'S GUIDE. The practical millwright's and engi- 
neer's ready reckoner; or tables for finding the diameter and power 
of cog-wheels, diameter, weight and power of shafts, diameter and 
strength of bolts, etc. By Thomas Dixon. Sixth edition. Con- 
tents : Diameter and Power of Wheels ; Diameter, Weight and Power 
of Shafts; Multipliers for steam used expansively; Diameters and 
Strength of Bolts; Size and Weight of Hexagonal Nuts; Speed of 
Governors for Steam Engines; Contents of Pumps; Working Bar- 
rels; Circumferences and Areas of Circles; Weight of Boiler Plates; 
French and English Weights and Measures. 93 pages. 12mo., 
cloth. $1. 

MILL WORK. A practical treatise on mill-gearing, wheels 
shafts, riggers, etc., for the use of engineers. By Thomas Box. 
Third edition. Contents: Chapter 1, On Motive Power. 2, On 
Wheels. 3, On Shafts. 4, On Riggers or Pulleys. 5, On Keys for 
Wheels and Riggers. 6, Examples of Gearing in Practice. 120 
pages, 11 plates. 12mo., cloth. $3.00. 



HANDBOOK OF PRACTICAL 

Smithing and Forging 



BY 



THOMAS MOORE, 

Foreman and Practical Smith. 



CONTENTS OF CHAPTERS. 

1. Introductory, the necessity of application, industry, and high 
standards. 

2. Forges and Hearths; Fuel Blowers; Anvils, Swage-Block; 
Hammers, making Tools, forging Hardening and Grinding, Anvil 
Tools, different forms of Tongs, etc. 

3. Drop Hammers, Stampers, dies, forging machines and presses. 

4. Iron and steel, cast steel, compound steel, Bessemer steel, etc. 

5. Testing, bending tests, compression tests, rivet test, welding 
test, link test, tube test, testing wrought iron, fractures. 

6. General forging and smithing, the making of many useful 
articles in small quantities, the many forms of bolts, eye bolts, 
split-cotters, nuts, collars, washers, ferrules for boiler tubes, door 
bands, cross bars, spanners, box or socket spanners for different 
kind of nuts, clutch spanner, licks for valve motions, etc., small 
lathe carriers, swivels for chains, hooks, etc., buckle for tightening 
screws, fork ends, hooks, hoops, oval hoops, angle iron hoops, 
bending angle irons for various purposes, wrought iron tuyers, 
annealing, blocking, bending, scroll bending, square corners, link 
bending, coil springs, bending table, camber, case harden, cogging, 
contraction or shrinkage, hardening, drifting, forging, fullering, 
drills, sheer blades, jumping, portabor, punching, rolling, shutting, 
shutting angles, shutting T-bars, scarfing, sheering, tempering, etc. 

Explanation of technical terms, tables, index. 

251 pages, 401 illustrations, 12mo., cloth. $2.00, 



„S>PO* 



PONS' 

jyTecljaijics Qwi) JQook 

A WORK THAT SHOULD BE IN YOUR BOOKCASE. 

The general method of treatment of each subject, is first 
the raw materials worked upon, its characteristics, variations 
and suitability; secondly, the tools used, the sharpening 
and use; thirdly, devoted to typical examples of work to be 
done, materials, and how to do similar work, etc* 

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. 

Mechanical Drawing, (13 pages.) 

Mechanical Movements, (55 pages.) 

Casting and Founding in Brass and Bronze, (30 pages.) 

Forging and Finishing, (46 pages.) 

Soldering in all its branches, (26 pages.) 

Sheet Metal Working, (10 pages.) 

Turning and Turning Lathes, (31 pages.) 

Carpentry, (224 pages.) 

Log Huts, Building, Etc., (8 pages.) 

Cabinet-Making, (36 pages.) Upholstery, (6 pages.) 

Carving and Fretwork, (13 pages.) 

Picture Frame Making, (4 pages.) 

Printing, Graining and Marbling, (28 pages.) 

Staining, (13 pages.) Gilding, (3 pages.) 

Polishing, (23 pages.) » Varnishing, (4 pages.) 

Paper Hanging, (4 pages.) Glazing, (7 pages.) 

Plastering and White Washing, (9 pages.) 

Lighting, (8 pages.) 

Foundations and Masonry, (46 pages.) 

Roofing, (14 pages.) 

Ventilating and Warming, (13 pages.) 

Electric Bell and Bell Hanging, Gas Fitting, (8 pages.) 

Roads and Bridges, Banks, Hedges, Ditches and Drains, As- 
phalt Cement Floors, Water Supply and Sanitation. 
^otal number of pages 702. Total number illustrations 1,420 

Bound in substantial half-extra, - PRICE BY MAIL ONLY $2.50 
We have an 8 page circular giving full contents which will be sent 
flee oq application* 



Pocket-Books for Engineers. 

metric Weights and measures, by Sir G. Molesworth, 
Third edition revised and enlarged. Contents: Metrical System 
compared with English Metrical Scale; Linear Measures; Square 
Measures; Cubic Measures; Measures ot Capacity; Weights; Com- 
binations; Thermometers; Electrical. 32mo. limp cloth, 80cts. 

French measure and English Equivalents.— 

By John Brook. The English values of the French measures are 
arranged in a series of compact tables from one to a thousand 
millimetres, and from one to a hundred metres; the fractions of 
an inch, progressing in sixteenths, are also reduced to French 
values. The little book will be found useful to almost every 
engineer; 32mo., limp cloth. 40cts. 

moleswortli and Hurst. — The pocket-book of pocket- 
books. Being Hurst's and Molesworth's pocket-book bound 
together in full Russian leather, 32mo., round corners, gilt 
edges. $5.00 

George — Pocket-book of calculation in stresses, etc., for 
engineers, architects and general use. 140 pages, illustrated, 
32mo., cloth. $1.40 

Cutler and Edge — Tables for setting out curves from. 
100 feet to 5,000 feet radius. Useful for setting out roads, sewers, 
walls, fences and general engineering work, 16mo., cloth. $1.00 

Jordan. — Tabulated weights of angle, tee and bulb iron and 
steel and other information for the use of naval architects, ship- 
builders and manufacturers. 579 pages, 32mo., leather. $3.00 

SponsV — Tables and memoranda for engineers, by Hurst. 
The vest pocket edition, 64mo., roan. 50cts. 

Mackesy — Tables of barometrical heights to 20,000 feet, 
especially adapted for the use of officers on service, civil engineers 
and travellers. With 3 diagrams, 32mo., cloth. $1.25 

Thompson's Electrical Tables. — A valuable little 
reference book for engineers, electricians, motor inspectors and 
others interested in electrical engineering. Illustrated vest pocket 
edition, 64mo., roan. 50cts. 

Indestructible Waterproof Note-Book. — For the 

use of 'land and marine surveyors, mining engineers, explorers and 
for all w T ho have to use note-books in the open air. Made of 
paper that may be immersed in water for several weeks without 
injury to its contents, whether the entries be made with ink or 
pencil. Stiff board covers, sig§ 4 in.x6^. 80cts- net. 



THE BEST AND CHEAPEST IN THE MARKET. 



ALGEBRA SELF-TAUGHT. 

BY 
W. PAGET HIGGS, M. A., D.Sc, 



FOURTH EDITION. 



CONTENTS. 
Symbols and the signs of operation. The equation and the un- 
known quantity. Positive and negative quantities. Multiplication, 
involution, exponents, negative exponents, roots, and the use of ex- 
ponents as logarithms. Logarithms. Tables of logarithms and 
proportional parts. Transportation of systems of logarithms. Com- 
mon uses of common logarithms. Compound multiplication and the 
binomial theorem. Division, fractions and ratio. Rules for division. 
Rules for fractions. Continued proportion, the series and the sum- 
mation of <i6 series. Examples. Geometrical means. Limit of 
series. Equations. Appendix. Index. 104 pages, i2mo, cloth, 60c. 



See also Algebraic Sign®, Spons' Dictionary of Engineering 
No. 2. 40 cts. 

See also Calculus , Supplement to Spons' Dictionary No. 5. 
75 cts. 

Barlow's Tafoles of squares, cubes, square roots, cube roots, 
reciprocals of all numbers up to 10,000. A thoroughly reliable work 
of 200 pages, i2mo, cloth, $2.50. 

Logarithms. — Tables of logarithms of the natural numbers 
from 1 to 108,000 with constants. By Charles Babbage, M.A. 220 
pages, 8vo, cloth, $3.00. 

Logarithms. — A. B. C. Five figure logarithms for general 
use. By C. J. Woodward, B.Sc. 143 pages, complete thumb index* 
12mo, limp leather, $1.60. 

^ Books mailed postpaid to any address on receipt of trice 



Gas ^ Oil Engines 



PRODUCER GAS. The Properties, Manufacture and Uses of 
Gaseous Fuel, by A. Humboldt Sexton, F. I. C, F. C. S. The 
basis of this work was a series of lectures given by .the author at 
the Technical College, Glasgow. Special attention has 'been given 
to the principles on which the production of Gaseous Fuel depends. 
Typical producers have been described including some of the 
latest forms. The work has been written from a practical man's 
standpoint and is fully illustrated with sectional drawings. 228 
pages, 32 illustrations, 8vo., cloth. $4.00 net.J 

GAS PRODUCERS for Power Purposes, describing a number of 
different plants, using various materials for making gas for power 
purposes. W. A. Tookey. 141 pages, with numerous drawings of 
plants. Boards. 50 cts.* 

PETROL MOTORS Simply Explained. A practical Handbook 
on the Construction and Working of Petrol Motors, by T. H. 
Hawley. Contents of Chapters: 1. The Principles on which a 
Petrol Motor Works. 2. The Timing Gear, Valve Action, Cylinder 
Cooling. 3. The Carburation of Petrol. 4. Ignition Methods. 
5. Transmission and Manipulation Gearing; General Arrangement, 
etc. 6. Hints on Overhauling, and Care of Motor. 7. Maintaining 
Efficiency. 8. Some Hints on Driving. Index. 99 pages, 19 
drawings, 12mo., boards. 50 cts.* 

GAS ENGINES, their Advantages, Action and Application, by 
W. A. Tookey. Second edition, revised and enlarged. Part I. — 
Advantages of a Gas Engine over Electric Motor; Oil Engine; Steam 
Engine; The Cost of Gas; Up-keep; Attendance; Water; Erection; 
Powers of Gas Engines; Design of Gas Engines. Part II. — Hints 
to Buyers; How Gas Engines Work; Notes on the Gas, Air, Water 
Connections; Hints to Erectors. Part III. — Notes on Starting 
and Starters; Failures and Defects; Hints to Attendants; Suction 
Gas Producers. Index. 125 pages, 10 illustrations, 12mo., boards. 
50 cts.* 

OIL ENGINES, their Selection, Erection and Correction, by 
W. A. Tookey. Second edition. The information in this prac- 
tical handbook is arranged under the following headings: Part I. — 
Introductory. Part II. — Selection, Design, Hints to Purchasers. 
Part III. — Erection, Hints to Erectors. Part IV. — Correction. 
Appendix. — Various types of Stationary Oil Engines, Portable Oil 
Engines. 142 pages, 33 illustrations, 12mo., boards. 50 cts.* 



GAS AND OIL ENGINES, a practical handbook on. ^ Giving full 
instructions for their care and management, testing, etc. Es- 
pecially intended for those without any special technical knowl- 
edge who have charge of Gas Engines. By G. Lieckfeld, C. E. 
Revised and enlarged by George Richmond. Contents of Chapters. 
1. Construction, workmanship, economy, durability, cost of instal- 
ling, erection, foundations, gas pipes, rubber bag, cooling devices, 
exhaust and air- pipes, setting up gas engines. 2. Brakes and 
testing for power, heat in gas engines. 3. Attendance on gas 
engines, oil, cylinder lubricators, rules as to starting and stopping, 
cleaning gas engines. 4. Gas engine troubles and their remedies. 

5. Dangers and precautionary measures in handling gas engines. 

6. Oil engine management. 117 pages, illustrated, cloth $1.00. 

GAS ENGINE TROUBLES AND REMEDIES. A. Stritmatter. 
Explains the care and operation of gas and gasoline engines, how 
to avoid and overcome difficulties in operation. A practical book 
for the operator of an engine. Cloth, illustrated. $1.00. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS FROM " THE GAS ENGINE." 

Consists of the more interesting and valuable inquiries which have 
appeared for the past eight years. They relate to the design, con- 
struction, operation and repair of gas and gasoline engines for 
stationary, marine and automobile use. The answers were made 
by some of the best recognized authorities on the various subjects 
in America and Europe. 275 pages, 5x7 in., cloth. $1.50. 

GAS ENGINE DESIGN. By Chas. E. Lucre, Ph.D. Presents 
the principles underlying the design of gas engines, with reliable 
data for the use of the designer and manufacturer. Covers power, 
efficiency, economy, stresses, and the dimensions. Applies to the 
smallest size marine or automobile engine, as well as to the largest 
stationary unit. 250 pages, 145 diagrams, 8vo. cloth, $3.00. 

PRACTICAL MOTOR CAR REPAIRING. A handbook for Motor 
Car Owners and Drivers. By Eric W. Walford. Contents of 
Chapters: 1. The Motor. 2. Ignition. 3. Cooling Systems. 4. The 
Carburettor: Exhaust and Lubrication Systems. 5. Transmission. 
6. Frames, Springs, Axles and Wheels. 7. Tires, 8 Causes and 
Effect. 9. Miscellaneous. 126 pages, 39 illustrations, 50 cts. 

THE AUTOMOBILE POCKETBOOK. By E. W. Roberts, M.E. 
Gives clear and concise information on the operation and care of 
an automobile, tells what to do in case of an emergency, and in- 
formation concerning design. The text has been prepared to 
meet the understanding of the average reader. 325 pages, 52 
illustrations . $1.50. 

ON MARINE MOTORS AND MOTOR LAUNCHES. By E. W. 

Roberts, M. E. It contains chapters on operation, gasolene, 
igniters, fuel supply, choosing an engine, etc., etc. Every power 
boatman should have a copy, it will save him money, time and 
and bother. $1.00. 



The Design and Construction 

OF 

Oih Engines. 



WITH FULL DIRECTIONS FOR 



erecting, testing, Installing, Running ana Repairing. 

Including descriptions of American and English 

KEROSENE OIL ENGINES. 



By A. H. GOLDINGHAM, M.E. 



Synopsis of Contents of Chapters: 

i. Introductory ; classification of oil engines ; vaporizers ; ignition 
and spraying devices ; different cycles of valve movements. 2. On 
design and construction of oil engines ; cylinders ; crankshafts ; con- 
necting rods ; piston and piston rings ; fly-wheels ; air and exhaust 
cams, valves and valve boxes ; bearings ; valve mechanism, gearing 
and levers ; proportions of engine frames ; oil-tank and filter ; oil 
supply pipes ; different types of oil engines ; cylinders made in more 
than one piece ; single cylinder and double cylinder engines ; crank- 
pin dimensions ; fitting parts ; assembling of oil engine ; testing 
water jackets, joints, etc. 3. Testing for leaks, faults, power, 
efficiency, combustion, compression ; defects as shown by indicator ; 
diagrams for setting valves ; how to correct faults; indicator fully 
described; fuel consumption test, etc. 4. Cooling water tanks ; 
capacity of tanks ; source of water supply ; system of circulation ; 
water pump ; exhaust silencers ; self starters ; utilization of waste 
heat of exhaust 5. Oil engines driving dynamo ; installation of 
plant ; direct and belt connected ; belts ; power for electric lighting ; 
loss of power. 6. Oil engines driving air compressors ; direct con- 
nected and geared ; table of pressures ; pumping outfits ; oil engines 
driving ice and refrigeration outfits. 7. Full instructions for run- 
ning different kinds of oil engines. 8. Hints on repairs ; adjustment 
of crank-shaft and connecting rod bearing ; testing oil inlet valves 
and pump ; fitting new spur gears, etc. q. General descriptions with 
illustrations of American and English oil engines ; methods of work 
ing ; portable oil engines, etc., etc. Index and tables. 

> XIII. + 196 pages, 71 x Sh 79 illustrations, cloth, $2*00 



Books for Steam Engineers. 



DIGRAM OF CORLISS ENGINE. A large engraving giving 
a longitudinal section of the Corliss engine cylinder, showing rela- 
tive positions of the piston, steam valves, exhaust valves, and 
wrist plates when cut-off takes place at x 4 stroke for each 15 degrees 
of the circle. With full particulars. Reach-rods and rock shafts. 
The circle explained. Wrist-plates and eccentrics. Explanation of 
figures, etc. Printed on heavy paper, size 13 in. x 19 in., 25c. 

THE CORLISS ENGINE and its Management. A Practical 
Handbook for young engineers and firemen, (3rd edition) by J. T. 
Hen thorn. A good little book, containing much useful and practi- 
cal information. Illustrated, cloth, $1 .00. 

THE FIREMAN'S GUIDE to the Care and Management of 

Boilers, by Karl P. Dahlstkom, M.E., covering the following sub- 
jects: Firing and Economy of Fuel; Feed and Water Line: Low 
Water and Priming: Steam Pressure: Cleaning and Blowing Out; 
General Directions. A thoroughly practical book. Cloth, 50c. 

A B C OF THE STEAM ENGINE. W r ith a description of the 
automatic shaft governor, with six large scale drawings. A prac- 
tical handbook for firemen helpers and young engineers, giving a 
set of detail drawings all numbered and lettered and with names 
and particulars of all parts of an up-to-date American high speed 
stationary steam engine. Also a large drawing and full descrip- 
tion of the automatic shaft governor. With notes and practical 
hints. This work will prove of great help to all young men who 
wish to obtain their engineer's license. Cloth, price 50c. 

HOW TO RUN ENGINES AND BOILERS. By E. P. Watson, 

(for many years a practical engineer, and a well-known writer in The 
Engineer?) A first-rate book for beginners, firemen and helpers. 
Commencing from the beginning, showing how to thoroughly overhaul 
a plant, foundations, lining up machinery, setting valves, vacuum, 
eccentrics, connection, bearings, fittings, cleaning boilers, water tube 
boilers, running a plant, and many useful rules, hints and other 
practical information; manv thousands already sold. 160 pages, 
fully illustrated, cloth, $L00. 

AMMONIA REFRIGERATION. By I. L Redwood. A practi- 
cal work of reference for engineers and others employed in the man- 
agement of ice and refrigerating machinery. A first-rate book, be- 
ginning from the bottom and going carefully through the various 
processes, stage by stage, with many tables and original illustrations. 
Cloth, $1.00. 

MEYER SLIDE VALVE. Position diagram of cylinder with 
cutoff at i«. 

Price, 25c, 



Movable Valve Models, Diagrams and Charts. 



MEYER'S VALVE. A position diagram of cylinder with cut-off 
at $, J, § and J stroke of piston. By W. H. Weightman. With 
movable valves. Printed on card. 25c. net. 

WORKING VALVE MODELS FOR. MARINE ENGINEERS. A 

set of four cards: 1, Piston Valve with Steam Inside. 2, Piston 
Valve with Steam Outside. 3, Double-ported Slide Valve. 4, 
Common Slide Valve. Each card is in colors and has movable 
ports. Also full descriptive matter. In cloth case. 75c. net. 

WORKING MODELS OF ENGINE SLIDE VALVES. Comprising 
a complete set of eight diagrams in colors, with movable ports: 
1, Short D Slide Valve. 2, Single-acting Piston Valve (for Steam 
Hammer) 3, Meyer's Variable Cut-off Valves. 4, Long D Slide 
Valve. 5, Short D Slide Valve (Balanced). 6, Marine Engine 
Piston Valve. 7, Double-ported Slide Valve- 8, Simple Trick 
Valve. With small booklet giving full instructions $1.25 net. 

WORKING MODEL " X " SERIES NO. 1 and 2. No. 1 com- 
plete simple steam engine single cylinder horizontal type fitted 
with a D slide valve, sectional view showing all movable and fixed 
parts, drawm to scale, printed in colors on heavy card, size 6x9 J in. 
$1.00 net, with book, $1.25 net. 

No. 2, complete single cylinder steam engine, horizontal girder 
type fitted with Meyer's valve gear, sectional view showing all 
movable and fixed parts drawn to scale, printed in colors on 
heavy card, size 6x9| in. $1.00 net, with book, $1.25 net. 

No. 1 and No. 2 together with book, $2.00 net. These are two 
exceptionally fine models, all moving parts so connected that there 
is practically no back lash, the relative positions of all moving 
parts are shown at every point in the stroke of the engine. 

CORLISS ENGINE CHART. A fine engraving showing relative 
positions of the Piston Steam Valves, exhaust valves and wrist 
plates, etc., when cut-off takes place at J stroke for each 15 de- 
grees of circle, with full particulars. Size 13x19 in. 25c. Special 
price on a quantity. 

SLIDE VALVE CHART, showing position of the crank pin, 
eccentric, and piston at the point of admission, lead, full speed 
port opening, cut-off, release, full exhaust port opening and com- 
pression. With full directions. A blueprint, 14fxl0f, 25c. 

LOCOMOTIVE CHARTS. American type, a transparent edu- 
cational chart, with every part of the engine shown and numbered 
a good clear engraving size. 30x12 in. 25c. 

Atlantic type, a companion chart to above. 25c. 



CHARTS FOR 



Low Pressure Steam Heating 

FOR THE USE OF 

ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, CONTRACTORS AND 
STEAM FITTERS. 

By J. H. KINEALY, M.E. 

M. Am. Soc. M. E.^ M. Am. Soc. of H. and V. Eng'rs, «5rY., &c. 



The author has long been in the habit of using charts to aid him 
in his work. Knowing the value of them in saving time, simplifying 
work an J ensuring correct calculations he feels confident that they 
will be appreciated by engineers, architects and contractors, for whose 
benefit they have been compiled. Care has been taken to make the 
charts as clear and as easily understood and, above all, as accurate as, 
possible. They have been based upon theoretical considerations, 
modified by what is considered to be good practice in this country. 



Chart i. — This chart is for determining the number of square feet 
of heating surface of a low pressure steam heating system, pressure 
not to exceed 5 lbs. per square inch by the gauge, necessary to 
supply the heat lost through the various kinds of wall surfaces of 
rooms. The chart is divided into four parts Chart 2. — For deter- 
mining the diameters of the supply and return pipes for a heating 
system Chart 3. — For finding the number of square feet of boiler 
heating surface and the numbei of square feet of grate surface for 
a boiler that is to supply steam to a steam heating system. Chart 4. — 
For determining the area of the cross section of a square flue, or the 
diameter of a round flue, leading from an indirect radiation heater to 
the register in a room to be heated. 

Full details are given for the use of these cards. 

These four charts are printed on heavy white card-board and bound 
together with cloth, size 13 in. by 9^ in., $|.00t. 

These cards are securely packed for mail and sent to any part of 
the World on receipt of price. 



THE GOMPOUND ENGINE. 



W. J. TENNANT, A. M. I. Mech. E. 

Author of " The Shde Valve Simply Explained." 



" The author has treated his subject in a thorough, practical 
manner, yet in plain language, avoiding all mathematics. The 
numerous diagrams, scale drawings and illustrations add very con- 
siderably to its value. It is a work that should be in the hands of 
every progressive young steam engineer". 

Contents of Chapters. 

1. A General explanation of the Objects and Methods of Com- 
pounding. 

2. The Transfer of Steam from the High-Pressure to the Low- 
Pressure Cylinder; The Intermediate Receiver. 

3. The Size of the Low-Pressure Cylinder. 

4. Back-Pressure in the High-Pressure Cylinder becomes For- 
ward Pressure in the Low-Pressure Cylinder. 

5. The near Equivalent of an Experimental Compound Engine, 
and of Steam for Working it; Guage-Pressure and Absolute- 
Pressure; Expansion-Diagram and Indicator Diagram. 

6. Further Development of the Equivalent of a Sectional Com- 
pound Engine; its Mechanism. 

7. Determination of "Drop" in the Receiver, and of the 
Pressure resulting when volumes of Steam at Different Pres- 
sures are put into communication with each other. 

8. Final development of the near Equivalent of an Experi- 
mental Compound Engine. 

9. Horse Power from Indicator-Diagram. 

10. Reasons why the Compound Engine is Economical; The 
Heat Trap Theory; Cylinder Ratios and Receiver Proportions. 

11. Receiver Proportions (continued) . 

12. Addition of Theoretical Curve of Expansion to Indicator 
Diagram; Superheat due to Drop. 

13. Compounds, Triples and Quadruples; Steam Jackets. 

14. The Condenser and Air Pump. 

15. The Condenser and Air Pump, (conttnued). 

Appendix; With tables of dimensions of various types of Com- 
pound Engines. 102 pages. With 63 illustrations/ detail draw- 
ings and folding plates, 12mo., cloth, $1,004 



MODEL ENGINEER VoL 7. 



How to Become an Electrical Engineer. 

How to Make a Lever Switch. Illustrated. 

How to flake a Model Battleship. Detail Drawing. 

How to riake an Air Compressor, for Driving Model Engines. Detail 
Drawings. 

How to set a Simple Slide Valve. Illustrated. 

How to Make a Simple Model Steamer. Diagram. 

How to Make an Electrical Indicator. Detail Drawings. 

How to Make a Model Electric Launch. Detail Drawings. 

How to Make a Gramaphone. Detail Drawings. 

How to Test Smail Engines and Boilers. Diagrams. 

How to Make Clock Work Locomotives Detail Drawings. 

How to Make a Model Vertical Marine Engine. Detail brawings. 

How to Hake a Built-Up Horizontal Steam Engine. Detail Drawings. 

How to Make a 40=Ampere-Hour Accumulator. Illustrated. 

How to Make a Model Steam Travelling Crane. Detail Drawings. 

How to Make a 1/10 H. P. hlectric Motor. Detail Drawings. 

How to Make a Small Lathe from *' Scrap." Illustrated. 

How to flake a Power Fretsaw Detail Drawings. 

How to Make a Spring Lathe Chuck. Diagrams. 

Model " Willians" Central Valve Engine. Detail Drawings. 

Two Simple Forms of Resistance. Illustrated. 

The Motor Bicycle: Its Design, Construction and Use. Many Detail Draw- 
ings. 

The Rating of Model Yachts. With Diagrams. 

'flaa^3tuart Compound Vertical Engine. Complete Detail Drawings. 

Construction of Dug out Hodel Yachts. Detail Drawings. 

Construction of 1-2 H. P. Water Motor. Illustrated. 

Mr. Taylor's Model Launch Engine. Illustrated. 

The Pitmaston=Moor=Green Model Railway. Illustrated. 

Model Tank Locomotive. Detail Drawings. 

Mr Willis* Model Steam Launch. Illustrated. 

Original Designs for 750=watt Direct Coupled High Speed Steam Engines, 
and Dynamos with Full Details. 

A Four Inch Screw Cutting Lathe. Illustrated. 

Detail Drawings for 80=watt Multipolar Dynamo. 

Design for 100- watt Manchester Type Dynamo. 

Model Electric Railway. " Three Rail System," with Diagrams. 

Models made without a Lathe. Some Notes on a Large Static Machine. 

The Castelli Coherer for Wireless Telegraphy. Illustrated. 

A Cheap Petrol Carburetter for Small Gas Engines. Illustrated. 

A Neat Model Electric Launch. 

A Water-Regulating Resistance for a 1-in. to 2-in. Spark Coil. Diagrams. 

A Carbon Electrolytic Interruptor, Illustated. 

With many pages of Short Articles, Practical Letters, Notes, Questions and 
Answers, Book Notices, Yachting Notes, New Tools, Supplies, &c. 

286 pages, 311 Diagrams, 101 Half -Tones, 17 Full Single 
Page and Two Double Page Scale Drawings. Bound in Cloth, 
Price f $2>00 5 Net. 

Copies Mailed to any part of the World on Receipt of 
Price. 



MODEL ENGINEER Vol. 3 

—IS A— 

Library of Practical Books. 



The A. B. C. of Dynamo Design. Illustrated. 
The Designing of Model Yachts. Illustrated. 

The Design and Construction of flodei Express Locomotive. Illustrated. 
How to make a Hertz Electric Machine. Illustrated. 
How to make small Incandescent Electric Lamps. Illustrated. 
How to make Apparatus for Wireless Telegraphy. Illustrated. 
How to build a Portable Workshop. Illustrated. 
How to make a Model Quick=Firing Gun. Illustrated. 
How to fit Electric Ignition to a Gas Engine. Illustrated. 
How to make Electric Primary Batteries. Illustrated. 
How to make a Model Railway Carriage. Illustrated. 
How to make a>|H. P. Model High-Speed Steam Engine. Illustrated. 
How to make Morse Telegraph K ey and Sounder. Illustrated. 
How to make Model Steam Boilers, Land and Marine. Illustrated. 
How to fix Gas and OH Engines. Illustrated. 

How to make a Working Model Reversing Water- Wheel. Illustrated. 
How to build a Rectifier for Single-phase Alternating Currents, lllus. 
How to make Experimental Electrical Apparatus. Illustrated. 
How to make a Model Electric Light Plant. Illustrated. 
How to make a useful Blow-Lamp. Illustrated. 
How to make a Model Torpedo Boat Destroyer. Illustrated. 
How to make a Wimshurst Machine. Illustrated. 
How to miike &n Inexpensive Optical Lantern. Illustrated. 
How to wake a Feed Water Heater for Model Boilers. Illustrated* 
How to make a Galvanometer. Illustrated. 
How to make a 2 l 4 inch Gauge Locomotive. Illustrated. 
How to start a Workshop. Illustrated. 
Boring and Drilling in the Lathe. Illustrated. 
Practical Electrical Papers for Beginners. Illustrated. 
Clock Making as a Hobby. Illustrated. 
Driving small! Dynamos by Spur Gearing. Illustrated. 
High Spied Telegraphy of the Future. Illustrated. 
How to make a Simple Tool Holder. Illustrated. 
The Development of the Steam Turbine, 
Model Railways. 
The Ideal Motor Car. 

Descriptions and Illustrations of Famous Model Engines. 
Improved Methods of Making Induction Coils. 

Description and Illustrations of a Model of the Famous "Long Cecil'* Otts 
Made in Kimberly, S. A., during the siege. 

Steam Port Areas and Piston Speeds of Model Locomotives. 

With practical notes on Engines, Boilers, Brazing, Lathe Work, Shop Rink- 
les, New Tools, Appliances, Queries, Answers, Practical Letters, Useful Books 
and lots of other useful and practical information &c, &c. 

With 21 Large Scale Drawings and about 500 Half -Tone 
Illustrations and Scale Diagrams. 356 pages, 7 >£*$>£ inch 
m handsome cloth binding, $2>00 «**• 

Copies Mailed Post-Paid on Receipt of Price. 



AR 30 1908 

MODEL ENGINEER Vol. 8. 



A model electric street car, to detail. 

How to make a small Tesla coil, to detail. 

How to build a three-phase alternating motor, to detail. 

A reciprocating electro=motor, to detail. 

The construction of a Wheatstone bridge and an astatic galvanometer, to detail. 

Experiments on electric oscillations and waves, illustrated. 

Original designs for 750-watt direct-coupled high-speed steam engine and 

dynamo, to detail. 
A small easily made transformer, to detail. 
A controller for small electric motors, to detail. 
How to graduate smala voltmeters and ammeters, to detail. 
How to make an electric engraving machine, to detail. 
Model railway electric signalling, to detail. 
Practical facts about batteries, illustrated. 
Model hand=feed arc lamp for optical lantern use, to detail. 
Design for a series or parallel accumulator switch, to detail. 
Draftmanship for model engineers. 
A model engineers' drilling machine, to detail. 
Model making for beginners, to detail. 
Simple lessons m pattern making, illustrated, 
Milling in small lathes, to detail. 
An oil spray burner for models, frustrated. 
SiSver solder and how to use It. 
A useful! grinding machine illustrated. 
How to photograph modeJs, illustrated. 
A stock and die for model work, illustrated. 
A paraffin brazing Samp, illustrated. 
A cheap drilling machine, illustrated. 

A model muzzle-loading gun with revolving carriage, illustrated. 
Design for a model compound undertype engine and boiler, to detail. 
A neat small-power horizontal steam engine, to detail. 
How to make a simple boiler, to detail!. 
Setting out plates for conical boiser work, to detail. 
A model water-tube boiler and engine, to detail 
How to make a model steam road roller, to detail. 
Designs for a model De Laval steam turbine to detail. 
A model railway with complete plans, to detail. 
A model post-office railway carriage, to detail. 
The lubrication of mode! engines and small machinery, illustrated. 
A model flying machine, to detail. 
A model dirigible air ship, to detail. 
Hints on designing model yachts, illustrated. 
How to build model boats for speed, illustrated. 
Sail plans for model yachts, to detail. 
Steering gears for model yachts, illustrated. 
Several designs for model steam yachts, to detail. 
Screw propellers for model steamers, illustrated. 
A benzol ine burner for model marine boilers, illustrated. 
Several designs for model tugs, torpedo=boats, etc., to detail. 
THE MOTOR BICYCLE: Its design, construction and yse. A series of fine 
articles with full detail drawings. 

It is impossible in the space of one page to give a full description of this volume, but 
•we have selected some of the best articles. 

With many pages of short articles, practical letters, notes, questions and 
answers, new tools, supplies, etc., etc. 

620 pages, 4 full page plates, 32 full page drawings, 4 
double page drawings, 182 half-tone illustratiens and 900 
diagram*. Quarto, oloth, $3.00 »•"*• 



4 NEW AMERICAN BOOK ON INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL. 



A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK ON THE 

Distillation of Alcohol 

FROM FARM PRODUCTS AND 

DE=NATURING ALCOHOL. 

By RR WRIGHT. 



Including the Free Alcohol Law and its Amendment, the Govern- 
ment regulations therefore and a number of U. S. government 
authorized de-naturing formulas. 

In the preparation of this, the second edition, the author has 
followed his original plan of writing a plain practical handbook on 
the manufacture of alcohol and de-naturing for industrial pur- 
poses. This industry is bound to grow to enormous proportions 
as it has in Germany where over 100,000,000 gallons were manu- 
factured last year principally in small farm distilleries. This work 
is not intended as a scientific treatise but as a help to farmers 
a.nd others wishing to go into this industry on a moderate scale. 

The original matter has been carefully revised. Some of the 
chapters rewritten and a very considerable amount of new informa- 
tion added. The total number of illustrations brought up to 60 
including a number of plates giving the layout of distilleries. 

Contents of Chapters. 

1, Alcohol, its various forms and sources. 2, The preparation 
of mashes and Fermentation. 3, Simple Distilling Apparatus. 4, 
Modern Distilling Apparatus. 5, Rectification. 6, Malting. 7 
Alcohol from Potatoes. 8, Alcohol from Grain, Corn, Wheat, Rice 
and other Cereals. 9, Alcohol from Beets. 10, Alcohol from Molasses 
and Sugar Cane. 11, Alcoholometry. 12, Distilling Plants. Their 
general arrangement and equipment.. 13, De-natured Alcohol and 
U. S. Authorized De-naturing Formulae. 14, De-naturing Regu- 
lations in the United States. Index. 

281 pages, 60 illustrations and plates, 12mo., cloth, $1,004 



BOOKS ON AERONAUTICS. 

RESISTANCE OF AIR AND THE QUESTION OF FLYING. B 

A. Samuelson. An important lecture of considerable interest t 
those interested in Aeronautics. Contents: Introduction. Th 
Resistance of Plastic Bodies. Air-pressure on Flat Bodies. Th 
Centre of Air-pressure. Distribution of the Air-pressure on th 
Single Elements of an Inclined Plane. The Normal Air-pressur 
on a Thin Plane Inclined at an Angle to the Direction of Motion 
Lilienthal's Balance of Rotation. The Numerical Value of tin 
Normal Pressure. Flying in General. Flying in Reality. Hori 
zontal Flight by Wing-Flapping. Steering and other Effects o 
the Stroke. Conclusions. 23 illustrations, 8vo., paper. 75c,J 

FLIGHT-VELOCITY. By A. Samuelson. This work is a shon 
comprehension of extensive scientific investigation and experi 
mental work. Contents: The Rowing Flyer No. 5. The Motoi 
Mechanism. The Fundamental Conditions of Flying by Win£ 
Flapping. The Wings. The Re-sail. Flight Velocity. Living 
Flyers. Plane or Concave Supporting Surfaces. The False Reso 
lution of Forces. The Erroneous Opinion: the Breadth of an In- 
cline Plane Prevails over its Length. The Centre of Air-pressure, 
and the Distribution of the Pressure. On the Single Parts of an 
Inclined Plane. The Principle: the Normal Air-pressure of an In- 
clined Plane is independent of the Angle of Inclination. Tables 
of Motion at Varying Angles. The Human Flight. Conclusions. 
With five plates, 8vo„ paper. 75c.J 

FLYING MACHINES. Past, Present and Future. A popular ac- 
count of flying machines, dirigible balloons, By A. W. Marshall 
and H. Greenly. Whilst the matter in this book is intended as a 
popular exhibition of the subject, it includes information which 
will assist the reader with serious intentions of making an attempt 
to produce a flying machine or air-ship. A great deal of sound 
experimental work has been done, forming a basis upon which 
future plans can be calculated. An account of some of this work 
is here given. Contents of Chapters : 1 . Introduction. Dr. Barton's 
Air-ship. Lebaudy's Military Air-ship. The Deutsch Air-ship. 
The Wellman Air-ship. Motors of the Wellman Air-ship. Chapter 2. 
Dirigible Balloons. Giffard's. Dupuy de Lome. Tissandk r&\ 
Krebes'. Santos Dumont's, No. 6 and No. 9. Spencer's Air-snip. 
Barton's. Maxim's Flying Machine. Archdeacon's Air Propeller 
Cycle. Barton's, Rawson's, Baulx, Zeppelin, Deutsch, Lambert, 
Wellman 's Air-ships. Trolanini's Air-propelled Boat. Chapter 3. 
Flying Machines. Giving a Number of those made by Hargrave 
and also by Phillips, Ader, Maxim, Pilsner's Soaring Wings, Lang- 
ley, Bastine, Bleirot, Voison, Wright's Gliding Aeroplane, and 
numerous others. Chapter 4. The Art of Flying. Chapter 5. 
Flying Machines of the Future. 134 pages, illustrations and vz .go 
plates, 12mo. 50c* 



Published Weekly, Annual subscription, Subscription 6 months, $1.50 

Single numbers, 8c. $3,00 postpaid. " 4 " $1.00 

The Model Engineer 

AND ELECTRICIAN. 

The BEST Paper for Young Engineers Students, Model Makers, Apprentices, 
and all interested in Mechanical and Electrical Work. 



SPECIAL FEATURES* 

Practical Articles by experienced writers on the construction and 
working of model steam, gas and oil engines; model locomotives 
and railways; model boilers; model steam and electric launches, 
and sailing yachts; lathes and metal and wood- working tools; 
pattern-making; s brass and iron founding; forging; model 
dynamos and motors; electric bells, telephones and batteries; 
accumulators; electric lighting; influence machines; electrical 
^experiments ; motor cycles, &c. v &c. 

Model Engineers and their Work, — Illustrated interviews with 
prominent model engineers, describing their workshops, their 
methods of working; and some of their models. 

Our Beginners* Column. — A section devoted to elementary 
instruction on the use of tools; the making of simple apparatus 
and models, and the carrying- out of easy experiments. 

Practical Letters from oaf 1 Readers. — A correspondence 
column, wherein readers can describe workshop appliances or 
methods of their own invention and discuss practical matters of 
mutual interest. 

Amateurs' Supplies. — Under this heading rhort descriptions of 

new tools, apparatus and materials are inserted, thus keeping the 

reader posted up in the latest improvements. 

r , m A System of Queries and Replies, by which all readers of the 

i journal can obtain information and advice on mechanical or 

electrical subjects. 

Original Working Drawings and high-class illustrations are a 
regular feature of the journal. 

Prtee Competitions open to all readers, are announced from 
time to time, on all subject?. 

Model Yachting Notes, New Books, &c, &c; 
All subscriptions should be sentto 



/// a: %. 



A NEW AMERICAN BOOK ON INDUSTRfAL ALCOHOL. 



A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK ON THE 

Distillation of Alcohol 

FROM FARM PRODUCTS AND 

DE-NATURING ALCOHOL. 

By F. B. WRIGHT. 



Including the Free Alcohol Law and its Amendment, the Govern- 
ment regulations therefore and a number of U.S. go/emment 
authorized de-naturing formulas. ^%r .* 

In the preparation of this, the secoi d edition, the author has 
followed his original plan of writing a plain practical handbook on 
the manufacture of alcohol and de-naturing for industrial pur- 
poses. This industry is bound to grow to enormous proportions 
as it has in Germany where over 100,000,000 gallons were manu- 
factured last year principally in small farm distilleries. This work 
is not intended as a scientific treatise but as a help to farmers 
and others wishing to go into this industry on a moderate scale. 

The original matter has been carefully revised. Some of the 
chapters rewritten and a very considerable amount of new informa- 
tion added. The total number of illustrations brought up to 60 
including a number of plates giving the layout of distilleries. 

Contents of Chapters. 

1, Alcohol, its various forms and sources. 2, The preparation 
of mashes and Fermentation. 3, Simple Distilling Apparatr~ 
Modern Distilling Apparatus. 5, Rectification. 6, Maltim 7 
Alcohol from Potatoes. 8, Alcohol from Grain, Com, Wheat, Rice 
and other Cereals. 9, Alcohol from Beets. 10, Alcohol from Molasses 
and Sugar Cane. 11, Alcoholometry. 12, Distilling Plants. Their 
general arrangement and equipment. 13, De-natured Alcohol and 
U. S. Authorized De-naturing Formulae. 14, De-naturing Regu- 
lations in the United States. Index. 

281 pages, 60 illustrations and plates, 12mo., cloth, $1 S Q&£ 



